Dorothy Gamble & Marie Hoff. The Handbook of Community Practice. Editor: Marie Weil. Sage Publications. 2005.
Background
World population growth combined with resource depletion leads to a decreased capacity for social and economic development. These trends are not limited to the impoverished nations and cultures often designated as the Third World. All around the globe, water and soil, the basic foundation for production of food and fiber, are being depleted and polluted at rates far beyond nature’s capacity to replenish and purify these essential resources (Pimentel, Westra, & Noss, 2000). The Earth is undergoing accelerated climate change, primarily owing to the use of fossil fuels that have made possible the modern industrial model of development. Climate change can be expected to contribute to the spread and increased rate of infectious diseases as well as severe threats to agricultural production; in turn, these effects will severely threaten cultural sustainability (Hoff, 2002; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1996). The state of the natural environment is likely to be the primary economic and political factor influencing the development of peoples in the 21st century.
At the same time, through the human genome project, we are now aware more than ever that human beings are closely related to all living species on Earth. In the words of Swimme and Berry, “Every living being of earth is cousin to every other living being” (1994, p. 5). Scientific knowledge has opened our minds to more understanding of things we cannot see. It is, however, our willingness to accept responsibility for our role in environmental degradation and for changing the nature of development that allows us to have a salutary effect on the quality of survival for all Earth’s species. Social work embraces the ethical principles that “social workers’ primary goal is to help people in need and to address social problems” and that “social workers recognize the central importance of human relationships” (National Association of Social Workers [NASW], 1996, pp. 5-6). These ethical principles provide the grounds for social work practitioners in all fields—most especially for those in community practice—to become involved in local-to-global action in response to this unprecedented challenge to the quality of human life on Earth.
Concepts Underpinning Sustainable Development Practice
Concepts most often associated with sustainable development practice are social development, human development, and the term sustainable development itself. These concepts are widely used in the literature and have many overlapping, and sometimes contrasting, meanings.
Social development. This concept emerged after World War II, primarily to describe work to improve conditions in poor nations and societies newly liberated from colonial domination. In these societies, according to Midgley, social development was seen as “a process of planned social change designed to promote the well-being of the population as a whole in conjunction with a dynamic process of economic development” (1995, p. 25; see also Midgley & Livermore, this volume). In this approach, social services are intrinsically linked to economic development, and they are viewed more as investments than as a drain on the economy. Although social development as a concept and a process emerged primarily in poor nations, social workers in the United States have been among the leaders in applying its concepts, values, processes, and intervention strategies in the American context (Midgley & Livermore, 1997). Case studies, as well as theoretical debates and efforts to define social development, are regularly undertaken in many books, articles, and journals, including Social Development Issues. Some generally accepted principles and strategies include democratic procedures for decision making, intense intersectoral planning strategies (i.e., involvement of government, commerce, education, and civic groups), and broad participation by citizens in implementing programs.
Human development. Human development is defined as strategies aimed at the achievement of individual well-being and the opportunity to express personal capacities. In 1990, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) published the first Human Development Report, in which they devised a composite index to measure human development. This index was a more comprehensive method than the gross national product (GNP) for measuring the development of people in both high-income and developing nations. Mahbub ul Haq was involved in the initial leadership for the creation of the UN’s Human Development Index (HDI), which took into consideration life expectancy at birth, knowledge (based on the adult literacy rate and the combined school enrollment ratio), and adjusted per capita income in Purchasing Power Parity. Subsequently, each annual report provides the HDI for countries and regions and also focuses on a specific aspect of human development, highlighting barriers and support mechanisms for moving toward sustainable development policies that could improve human well-being. In the UNDP’s 1992 report, for example, the 20:20 Initiative was introduced, proposing that every developing country allocate 20% of its domestic budget, and every donor country 20% of its official development assistance, to insuring basic health care, education, access to safe water and sanitation, and family planning packages for all couples. The UNDP’s 1996 report was focused on the meaning of “growth,” an important discussion that challenged traditional definitions.
Gender has become a particularly significant issue in sustainable development because of the role women play in nurturing families and preserving environmental resources. In response to this recognition, the UNDP’s 1995 report introduced the Gender-Related Development Index and the Gender Empowerment Measure to track worldwide gender inequalities in human development. In the UNDP’s 1997 report, human poverty was the focus of a new index. The Human Poverty Index was formulated as a composite measure for human poverty, including the percentage of people expected to die before age 40, the percentage of adults who are illiterate, and overall economic provisioning in terms of the percentage of people without access to health services and safe water, and the percentage of underweight children under 5. (UNDP, 1992, p. 14)
The annual update on these measures helps countries track the outcomes of economic and social policy changes.
Social work values are evident in the UNDP annual reports. In the 1999 report, for example, the writers focused on the concept they called caring labour—providing for children, the sick and the elderly, as well as all the rest of us, exhausted from the demands of daily life…. Without enough care, individuals do not flourish. Without attention and stimulus, babies languish, failing to reach their full potential. And without nurturing from their families, children underperform in school. (p. 7)
The HDI is a basic tool for measuring efforts toward sustainable community development. The concept of using a composite measure of human development rather than a simple income measure provides social workers engaged in community practice with a valuable resource.
Sustainable development. Sustainable development was conceptualized in 1987 in the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), the United Nations’ commission appointed to study the relationship between social development and the state of the world’s natural environment. The WCED, chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland, former prime minister of Norway, defined sustainability as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (1987, p. 43).
A central idea of environmental sustainability is that of regeneration and continuity of the foundation of natural resources on which human society is necessarily built. Historical and anthropological research demonstrates that many societies have disappeared owing to depletion of their natural resources. Currently, all societies across the globe face this threat, as many natural resources are being used beyond rates of replenishment. Thus, environmental and social continuity are inextricably linked.
Estes (1993) provided an especially useful review of the theoretical and historical antecedents that contribute to “the power of the concept” (p. 1) of sustainable development, and he analyzed the actions and writings of a variety of recent social movements that have contributed to its meaning and evaluation. These include the environmental and ecological, antiwar and antinuclear, world order, world dynamics modeling, the European Green Party, alternative economics, women’s, indigenous people’s, and worldwide human rights movements.
Sustainable community development practice leads to a holistic development strategy that strives to integrate environmental, economic, and social factors in such a way, that, for example, biodiversity and cultural diversity can both be protected. Thus, environmental protection and conservative use of resources, along with investments in both human and social capital (e.g., education, health, civic capacity and leadership training, employment and entrepreneurial skills development, gender equity, and the elimination of racial and cultural oppression), are seen not as detrimental to national, regional, or local economic wealth, but as necessary components of economic production models for long-term viability to meet human needs and protect global resources.
Applications to Social Work Practice
The social work profession emerged in the United States during the early 20th century in response to conditions and problems generated by industrialization, urbanization, and mass immigration. The profession has a historical concern with alleviating poverty and developing healthy communities. NASW’s (1996) Social Work Code of Ethics indicates that
social workers should promote the general welfare of society, from local to global levels, and the development of people, their communities, and their environments. Social workers should advocate for living conditions conducive to the fulfillment of basic human needs and should promote social, economic, political, and cultural values and institutions that are compatible with the realization of social justice. (p. 26)
In recognition that human beings are intrinsically social and shaped by opportunities available in their social and physical environment, as well as by their genetic endowment, social work methods incorporate attention to sociocultural influences on the individual’s capacity to develop as a person. Only in the past decade, however, has the profession begun to recognize explicitly and incorporate into practice the important influences of the natural environment on individuals and communities (Hoff & McNutt, 1994; NASW, 1999). Sustainable community development is probably still an unfamiliar practice framework for most social workers; however, as examples of sustainable community development emerge, we begin to see more and more social workers as significant participants.
Theoretical Foundations
In addition to the concepts described above, theoretical foundations in the natural and social sciences as well as the humanities help social workers gain more specific knowledge about human interaction with the environment.
Natural Sciences
Concepts of environmental sustainability are drawn from such natural sciences as biology and climatology, as well as from disciplines that cross the boundaries of natural and social sciences, such as geography and ecology. Ecological studies draw on many scientific disciplines to arrive at such concepts as carrying capacity, the number of a given species that an ecosystem can sustain without collapse; biodiversity, the dependence of the strength of an ecosystem on the variety of species within it—for example, monocultures or those with very limited diversity are less resistant to disease (Wilson, 1988); and adaptivity and balance, that is, in healthy ecosystems, species can creatively adapt for survival and tend to maintain an equilibrium in their numbers over time.
An important concept for sustainable community development in social work is bioregionalism, which emerges from biological studies of ecosystems and the articulation of the elements and interactions specific and sometimes unique to particular localities. Bioregional theory attempts to demonstrate how human activity, particularly work and economic production to meet basic human needs, is shaped by the natural elements of a region. Bioregional theory also subscribes to normative standards for human action, which are believed to be in harmony with how natural systems interact. Thus, according to Kirkpatrick Sale, a pioneer in the field, bioregional approaches to economy, polity, and society emphasize values such as cooperation, decentralization of authority, and diversity (1985, p. 50). Because of its focus on a geographic place, bioregional theory is compatible with the models for social work community practice that Jack Rothman identified as “locality development” (2001, p. 45) and Weil and Gamble identified as “community social and economic development” (1995, pp. 581-586). This theory goes beyond locality development in proposing that social planning should build on and integrate the distinctive aspects of a local ecosystem into proposals for economic and other social development. Experimental efforts to implement a bioregional vision are occurring in many regions of the United States (Bernard & Young, 1997), particularly in Appalachia (Scherch, 1998), the Pacific Northwest (Hoff, 1998), and along many major rivers and streams.
Perhaps the most comprehensive study of the global environment is the United Nations’ commissioned Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1996). This team of 2,500 scientists from around the world has developed an encyclopedic assessment of the effect of global warming on the world’s ecological systems and the expected effects on human health and commerce. Immediately germane to social work practice are effects such as increases in weather-related disasters, reductions in food resources, and increases in the level and range of bacterial diseases. These conditions affect the quality of life for individuals, families, and communities. This research also helps us understand how human lifestyles and development activities create conditions that can contribute to more natural disasters.
Social Sciences
Sustainable development practice draws on economics, sociology, psychology, and anthropology, among other social sciences. Political theory and interdisciplinary fields, such as feminist and Native American studies, policy development, and urban/rural planning, also contribute to emerging perspectives on how to promote human development in an environmentally sustainable way.
Neither traditional free market (i.e., capitalist) nor Marxist economics addressed the costs of environmental pollution or depletion in assessing net improvements in the economic welfare of a society. E. F. Schumacher (1973), an English economist, was one of the first contemporary authors to appraise the deleterious effects of large-scale industrial production on both people and the environment. His widely hailed volume, Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered, contributed significantly to the movement for new development approaches that sustain both people and the environment.
Economists and futurists such as Herman Daly (1996; Daly & Cobb, 1994), Costanza (1991); Hawken (1993); Hawken, Lovins, and Lovins (1999); Henderson (1996); and Lutz and Lux (1988) have developed articulate arguments for approaches to economic theory and practice that internalize environmental costs in economic equations and that make a distinction between sheer economic growth (expansion) and economic development that integrates an ecological component. The United States, for example, although perhaps the wealthiest nation in history, has an accelerated rate of soil and water depletion, the highest medical costs in the world, and a very high rate of physical violence among the population. Under older economic models, none of these costs of development would be calculated in assessing wealth.
Since the 1980s, when a sense of crisis became fairly widespread regarding the world’s natural environment, researchers from almost every social discipline have pursued studies of the interactions between the natural world and human society. Paul Wachtel (1989), a psychologist, analyzed the negative psychological effects of the American way of life, devoted to the pursuit of affluence, which impels us to use extraordinary levels of natural resources, far beyond environmental sustainability. In their occasional “Earth Pulse” notes, National Geographic (2001) reported that the ecological footprint, representing the productive area of the Earth required to support the lifestyle of one individual, is, on average, 20 acres per person for industrialized countries, an amount four times the average in developing countries. In the United States, the figure is a high of 30.2 acres (an online “Ecological Footprint Quiz” is also available through the Redefining Progress Web site, http://www.rprogress.org).
Of special importance to social workers concerned with race, gender, and other bases of social and political inequality, multidisciplinary and action research have uncovered the relationships among environmental exploitation and race and gender inequities (Bullard, 1990; Harvey, 1996; Merchant, 1980,1992; Shiva, 1993). This line of research has exposed the continuity of the logic behind exploitation of nature—based on power and acquisitive values—and the exploitation of poor neighborhoods and regions, often with a population disadvantaged by racial or class identity (Bullard, 1990; Bryant & Mohai, 1992). Critical theory that exposes unequal, unjust power relationships between rich and poor and demonstrates the logic that links human oppression to rapacious approaches to uses of environmental resources (Dickens, 1992; Korten, 1995) also informs sustainable development practice.
Feminist research has articulated the harmony between feminist values and environmental values (Harcourt, 1994; Merchant, 1980). Women make significant contributions to environmental causes and to the relationship between the environment and human well-being. Examples include Wangari Maathai of Kenya, whose tree-planting campaign has restored the landscape and improved the economic opportunities of women; Rachel Carson (1962), whose pioneering work Silent Spring on the lethal effects of pesticides was fought fiercely by chemical companies; and Lois Gibbs, the housewife whose concern for her son’s health led her from a neighborhood safety campaign to national leadership in working-class citizens’ fight against toxic pollution across the country (Breton, 1998). Recent United Nations conferences on the status of women have drawn more widespread attention to the need for the active involvement of women in both leadership and strategy development for the promotion of environmentally friendly development that also promotes human well-being (Weil, Gamble, & Williams, 1998, see especially pp. 269-270). Ecofeminism and development from a feminist perspective, especially in poor nations, notes that by stressing production for export, traditional (i.e., capitalist) models for development favor male workers and tend to destroy local agriculture and cultural traditions that in some countries (principally in Africa and Asia) were largely a woman’s domain (Harcourt, 1994; Stoesz, Guzzetta, & Lusk, 1999). Feminist theory and studies of women’s roles and action in development are significant resources for sustainable development strategies (Nussbaum & Glover, 1995; Rao, Stuart, & Kelleher, 1999).
Humanities
Philosophers (Partridge, 1981; Ralston, 1986) and theologians (Berry, 1988; Cobb, 1992; Hallman, 1994; Swimme & Berry, 1994) have delved into the cosmo-logical beliefs and ethical values associated with various perspectives on the human relationship to the natural environment. Of particular merit is the partnership of economist Herman Daly with theologian John Cobb in their 1989 book, For the Common Good (revised in 1994). Their work critiqued current economic theory and the effect of its application on people and land, and they proposed a framework for reform by drawing on values derived from religious traditions such as community, justice, and a view of materialism (i.e., consumerism) as a form of idolatry (pp. 382-406). Based on these normative insights, many progressive religious organizations in the United States are developing individual initiatives and ecumenical partnerships for environmental action. The Web site of the National Religious Partnership for the Environment (http://www.nrpe.org) documents these endeavors, which frequently have a developmental character. They demonstrate, for example, environmental responsibility that also promotes human development, such as gardening projects for youth or water and forest restoration.
Principles, Concepts, and Skills for Social Workers in Sustainable Development
Principles
The advancement of sustainable development requires the involvement of many disciplines in cross-sectoral research, planning, and action. Estes referred to the tasks of rethinking and reorganizing the direction of human development as being “political, social, and moral in nature” (1993, p. 12). In his work, This Endangered Planet: Prospects and Proposals for Human Survival, Richard Falk (1972, pp. 293-312) provided a basic set of values to guide the work we might now call sustainable community development. Here are his principal points with rationales and notes on more recent developments:
- Unity of humankind and unity of life on earth. When we accept that all living creatures, plant life, water, and air are part of a common system, we are less likely to destroy parts of it carelessly.
- The minimization of violence. NASW engaged in a 3-year campaign to study and discuss how violence prevents and destroys gains in development (see Van Soest, 1997).
- The maintenance of environmental quality. This includes the need to reverse the damage that has already been done to water, soil, and air, when possible.
- The satisfaction of minimum world welfare standards. Poverty contributes to environmental degradation, violence, lost creativity, and lost productivity.
- The primacy of human dignity. With sustainable development, human beings require basic freedoms and should not be viewed as just consumers and expendable workers (see UNDP, 2000, p. 12; 2002).
- The retention of diversity and pluralism. Biodiversity and cultural diversity contribute to a healthy biosphere and a healthy society.
- The need for universal participation. Progress toward ecological preservation cannot be made if portions of the population are excluded because they are poor, dark-skinned, female, young, old, illiterate, or bereft of material resources (see Aspen Institute, 1996; Castelloe, 1999; Chambers, 1997).
These values offer guidance to social workers at the local, regional, national, and world-building levels, and they are congruent with the values of the NASW (1996) Code of Ethics.
Social workers may find roles for themselves at all levels of sustainable development practice. At the community level, social workers will most often begin by working with residents to explore the environmental problems and resources in the bioregion (or ecological niche) in which the community is located and then assisting the community in determining how several questions will be answered. How will goals be agreed on that can sustain human development (e.g., jobs, recreation, housing, transportation, cultural and religious diversity) while respecting the limits and natural character of the region? How can social and economic development be planned so that it will not deplete the natural resources beyond the natural restorative capacities of the region?
These are not questions that can be answered for the short term, and unfortunately, U.S. and world history is replete with examples of short-term community development that have produced bad consequences in the long term. For example, irrigated farming on the Great Central Plains of the United States is rapidly depleting the region’s major aquifer, the Ogallala, while the rapid population growth in the Southwest, with its demand for water and electricity, is overwhelming the capacity of even the mighty Colorado River to regenerate itself. Social workers who are aware of such historical development will be more likely to ask questions and involve a wide spectrum of views in development planning.
Sustainable development practice also examines earlier or traditional social and economic practices of people to determine the ecological sustainability of an older practice and prospects for its current practical use. An example would be the effort in Hawaii to restore native Hawaiian cultural relationships to the land and sea in programs to reduce juvenile delinquency and increase economic security for working-class families (Matsuoka & McGregor, 1994).
Case Example 1 Restoring Hawaiian Connections to a Sacred Environment
Traditional Hawaiian culture was deeply rooted in spiritual and economic connections to the land and sea. Recent community development projects to increase the employment opportunities for native Hawaiian youth and ex-felons emphasized re-educating and reconnecting them with their cultural practices and beliefs related to their natural environmental heritage. “Participants are taught Hawaiian history, exchange feelings and perspectives on being Hawaiian, and through work programs, they are able to learn ancient technologies in cultivation, fishing, and food processing” (Matsuoka & McGregor, 1994, p. 114).
Concepts and Skills for Sustainable Development Practice
Master’s-level social workers should have skills in the following areas, which are important for sustainable development practice at the community level.
Democratic and participatory planning. Democratic and participatory planning is both a value and a strategic approach to economic and social development (Lusk & Hoff, 1994). Democratic approaches to developing social services and economic development projects exemplify the profession’s ethical commitment to “client’s socially responsible self-determination” and “informed participation” (NASW, 1996, pp. 5,29). Successful local economic development efforts in the United States confirm the importance of participation for the practical success of these undertakings (Betancur, Bennett, & Wright, 1991; Gittell, 1990; Gunn & Gunn, 1991; Guyette, 1996). Social work students and practitioners interested in sustainable development should become well versed in the participatory methods used in the assessment of community needs and priorities, as well as in motivating groups and developing environmentally friendly projects. In addition, having studied oppression, social workers understand the need to identify and facilitate the inclusion of the missing voices in the planning process. They can advocate seeking diverse perspectives from the community, especially of people of color or women and girls (Gamble & Varma, 1999; Weil et al., 1998). Social work students and practitioners can develop skills in the application of Nominal Group Technique (Delbecq, Van de Ven, & Gustafson, 1975), “cardstorming” (Gamble & Varma, 1999), popular education methods (Freire, 1970, 1998), and Participatory Rural Appraisal (Chambers, 1997), which are a few of the techniques that can bring diverse, often excluded, voices to the planning table.
Currently, there is an explosion of civic activity in all corners of the globe (Burbidge, 1998). CIVICUS, the World Alliance for Citizen Participation, documented the contours of these efforts in Civil Society at the Millennium (Mbogori, 1999). Their Web site, http://www.civicus.org, connects advocates of democratic and participatory planning across national boundaries.
Capacity building and strengthening social capital. Capacity building and strengthening social capital are the building blocks for social and economic development. Capacity building is the ability to increase the leadership and organizational skills of local people for the purpose of strengthening their own organizations and networking capacities (Aspen Institute, 1996; Castelloe & Watson, 1999; Gubbels & Koss, 2000). The following example demonstrates ways of building community capacity.
Case Example 2 Restoring an Inner-City Neighborhood
In Baton Rouge, the Louisiana State University, under the leadership of social work faculty members and administrators, reached out to its impoverished African American neighbors to work in a true partnership to improve the physical environment (trash removal, tree and garden plantings), the skills and education levels of residents (human capital development), the level of social networks (social capital development), and the restoration of important historical buildings in the neighborhood (Livermore & Midgley, 1998). This community-university partnership entailed significant social work leadership and skills and enacted the principles of collaboration and networking (rather than hierarchical service-delivery models) and of human development as an investment rather than a cost. It also highlights that environmental sustainability is applicable to restoring or improving urban neighborhoods, not just rural areas or natural habitats.
Social workers can help build the capacities of people to lead, plan, set priorities, analyze economic and social conditions, engage with decision makers, develop alliances, access resources, and challenge injustice and undemocratic government. In developing these abilities—especially when analyzing the social and economic status of communities—social workers have the opportunity to incorporate the principles of sustainable development outlined previously.
Social capital is defined as the norms of trust and mutual obligation among community members (Castelloe, 1999; Midgley & Livermore, 1998; Putnam, 1993). It is particularly significant to community work, as Castelloe noted, because social capital reflects “the belief among community members that other community members, and the community as a whole, are worth the struggle and effort that collective action requires” (1999, p. 5). The primary skills needed by social workers to strengthen social capital are those required for developing networks and coalitions. Social work education stresses these skills for application in the development and delivery of traditional social service programs. In sustainable development, practitioners will also need to expand the range of networks to include partnerships with environmental organizations, religious and spiritual groups, community-based economic development organizations, political advocacy groups, government-appointed sustainable development groups, and progressive community-oriented businesses.
Intersectoral planning. Intersectoral planning for sustainable development strives to involve actively all the major institutional sectors of society—government, business, labor, religion, education (e.g., public schools, universities), and civic groups (e.g., environmental protection organizations, social agencies)—in a cooperative, integrated effort to promote economic improvements that maximize human development and minimize destruction to the physical environment. Urban renewal in the 1940s and 1950s crudely attempted to improve the physical infrastructure of cities without regard to effects on the people and their social and cultural sustainability. In later decades, beginning with the War on Poverty, social planners recognized the importance of people’s participation. In the past two decades, local, regional, and national battles over environmental protection versus economic development have culminated in more widespread awareness that all parties must participate and plan together if they are to succeed in their goals for community development and environmental protection (Guyette, 1996; Schnurr & Holtz, 1998).
Bioregional planning for sustainable development takes into account the natural boundaries created by river drainage systems, mountain ranges, lakes, and soil types, which are a critical force in local climate, food production, shelter construction, and mobility. Bioregions demonstrate tenacious natural patterns. Recent natural disasters (e.g., flooding in North Carolina and along the U.S.-Canadian border, and Western forest fires) have occurred because community housing and commercial districts have been located in flood plains or too near forested areas. Coupled social and economic planning can take account of both the dangers and assets of working in the physical and environmental boundaries. Ecotourism, for example, can provide the impetus for developing yet preserving vulnerable mountain or coastal areas where community members prize the natural beauty by making it economically advantageous to incorporate environmentally responsible designs for hotel and housing construction, transportation, cultural and historical preservation, waste creation and disposal, and environmental renewal of forests and wetlands. Many coastal, mountain, and island communities are struggling with these issues. Although social workers do not necessarily have technical skills for bioregional planning, they have the skills to facilitate interpersonal and intergroup processes and to mediate interactions among diverse representatives from communities seeking to explore the boundaries and meaning of bioregionalism. In addition, they can help community leaders establish linkages with such environmental experts as sustainable agriculture teachers at the community college, “green” business leaders, or state environmental leaders in water and air quality management. They can also help communities that have begun similar development efforts to create visions for sustainable community development to network with one another.
Sustainable community indicators. The use of sustainable community indicators will be an important skill for social workers to promote and use in the next several decades (see Estes, this volume). Many communities have already begun to map the baseline quality-of-life indicators they will follow in the next several decades to measure the results of development planning. For the global view, social workers can make use of the annual United Nations Development Report with its country-by-country indicators of human development, poverty, and gender development. This comparative information helps communities the world over explore their relative progress toward sustainable development.
On a local level, there are guides that will help communities prioritize their vision for development with a focus on environmental, social, economic, and cultural sustainability (Hart, 1999; Henderson, 1996). One example from a local effort involved the support of three municipalities and the county government to form a citizen group that worked for 4 years to develop a local vision and plan for sustainable development. Their shared set of values, presented to the public for open comment and discussion, was outlined as follows.
Case Example 3 Orange County, North Carolina: Vision Statement for Sustainable Development
- Sustainable, renewable use of resources and environmental stewardship through joint planning, cooperation and action; towns which are friendly and accessible, centers of education, culture and civic life; places where individuals and neighborhoods thrive along with institutions, organizations, and businesses which serve their needs; rural areas which retain natural, visual and economic resources by maintaining the integrity of forests, streams, and open space through voluntary incentives, thus preserving the land’s continuing potential for agriculture and other appropriate uses.
- The development of children and youth, as well as adult citizens in various phases of their lives, by providing excellent elementary and secondary education, cultural experiences, and life-long learning opportunities all of which foster intellectual, social and spiritual growth, develop marketable skills, and contribute to the fulfillment of individual potential.
- A strong commitment to the well-being of all individuals, young and old, of any race or ethnicity, and with any disability, by providing for basic physical and social needs, including those which support children and families, in an atmosphere of safety, equity, dignity, justice and economic opportunity.
- Governance that provides necessary public services efficiently, proactively establishes collaborative ties within the region and state, encourages civic participation, and is fully representative of all the county’s citizens, responsive to their needs, consistent and fair, socially just in decision-making, and accountable for the promises and obligations incurred on citizens’ behalf.
- A shared sense of community, civil, collaborative, vibrant, friendly, caring and both diverse and inclusive; where citizens feel responsible to and for one another; where involvement in community life is both encouraged and anticipated; where the contributions of all are welcomed and respected. (Orange County, NC, 2000)
Henderson (1996) described the need to redefine wealth and progress and to develop a new set of indicators that will capture the progress of nations and communities. Guidelines for developing such indicators are available in many forms (Daly & Cobb, 1994; Hart, 1999).
Think globally, act locally. “Think globally, act locally” is perhaps an unexamined truism in development. Most of the scientific community agrees that the Earth’s temperature is warming and that human activity is the primary cause. Greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide and methane are at the highest levels in recorded history, raising concerns about the dependence we have on nonre-newable fossil fuels for our energy sources. For those of us living in industrialized countries, our individual and collective behavior can make a difference to the global environment.
We not only have the scientific knowledge to understand how our local behavior affects the greater atmosphere, but through the use of electronic communication, we can also understand the conditions of small villages in countries around the globe. We have the ability to connect people in the industrialized world who have resources and skills with people in the developing world who can make use of such resources (whether political advocacy or material supports) from networks around the world (see, for example, the UNDP’s NetAid, http://www.netaid.org). Some groups have called this kind of activity “thinking locally, acting globally.” In addition, as individual citizens network with others throughout the world, they are able to see the role that individual families, communities, and regions play in decreasing behaviors that damage the social and environmental heritage of a place (Hoff, 1998). Communities have come to see how purchasing locally grown food products can both decrease the transport and processing costs and encourage the economic development of local farmers and the sustainability of local communities.
Social justice in development and accessibility. Social and economic justice in asset development and resource accessibility is a bold goal of sustainable development. For most people, deprivation and poverty in early childhood set them on a course of being deprived of assets and resources throughout life. One of Falk’s principles speaks to the “satisfaction of minimum world welfare standards” (1972, p. 298). We cannot be equal in our abilities and resources; however, most sustainable development definitions outline a need to provide basic health, education, shelter, and food to all people. Today, in the United States and throughout the world, economies are deeply flawed by increasing inequities between the very rich and the very poor. According to the UNDP:
Nearly 1.3 billion people live on less than a dollar a day, and close to 1 billion cannot meet their basic consumption requirements. The share in global income of the richest fifth of the world’s people is 74 times that of the poorest fifth. (1999, p. 22)
This is not only a moral problem, but a practical one. History and social research demonstrate the connections between a society’s wealth distribution and its propensity for social conflict and violence (Hoff, 1996; Wolpin, 1986). Conflict and violence not only squander vast quantities of financial resources, but inevitably, they also contribute to cultural instability and serious threats to the physical environment. Social work has always had a moral commitment to alleviating poverty. Social work’s involvement in the planning and advocacy to develop economic opportunities for disadvantaged populations can contribute to social peace and thus promote cultural and environmental sustainability.
People are investments. People are viewed as investments, not costs. In the United States and elsewhere, some economic policy proponents tend to see social welfare expenditures (for health, housing, child care, etc.) as costs that drain the economy of needed resources for production. International lending agencies, such as the International Monetary Fund, also reflect this bias; under structural adjustment programs, poor nations are frequently forced to cut back on basic social expenditures for health and education to qualify for loans. Sustainable social development practice seeks to demonstrate that societies prosper economically when basic human needs are met, including improvements in the education and skill levels of people. The story of Ganados del Valle (Pulido, 1996) clearly illustrates this process.
Case Example 4 Ganados del Valle (Flocks in the Valley): Restoring a Rural Culture
In northern New Mexico, the Tierra Wools cooperative business is an economic development project in which men and women (descendants of the first Spanish settlers in the area) work together to sustain an ancient breed of Churro sheep, introduced by the Spanish and valued for their distinctive wool. The project has enabled local Hispano (descendants of original Spanish settlers) women to learn traditional weaving and modern marketing skills for wool products. Members of the cooperative are deeply committed to land preservation, recognizing its importance in sustaining both their culture and their livelihoods. This project received assistance from churches and private foundations, as well as a university-based expert on sheep. Ganados del Valle is an excellent case example of integration of cultural, economic, and environmental goals, using both traditional skills and new knowledge and technology, including business management techniques (Pulido, 1996).
Locally based sustainable development initiatives will be characterized by explicit goals to foster the achievement of full human potential for every individual, as outlined in the Orange County vision statement. Social workers only need to act on the values expressed in their Code of Ethics (NASW, 1996) to move toward recognition of and commitment to the principle that investments in people are investments in the future of any community.
Reduction of violence. There is nothing as destructive to human development and environmental protection as violence (Hoff, 1986). As described by Van Soest (1997), violence is a global affliction. It can be evidenced in threats to personal security such as deprivation or oppression; as a part of state-sanctioned violence, such as torture, police brutality, or official neglect; as war, colonization, gang warfare, ethnic discrimination, and genocide; as domestic violence, rape, child abuse, and slavery; and even as self-inflicted violence, such as suicide and substance abuse (Van Soest, 1997). Individuals or groups who seek control over others through violence can make no progress toward sustainable development. Individuals and groups who are victims of any form of violence cannot devote their full capacity and resources to development or to the protection of their environment. The very concern that deprivation of the poorest individuals often promotes environmental destruction prompted the convening of the World Commission on Environment and Development. From their work with refugees; victims of partner abuse, child abuse, poverty, alcoholism and drug abuse, and racism; and youth at risk, social workers have the extensive knowledge and experience to understand the importance of reducing violence on whatever scale it occurs. Work toward the prevention of violence should be a central aspect of work toward sustainable community development.
Conclusions
The preceding set of concepts and skills are basic for anyone working in community building and community practice. They are especially basic for social workers who will work in sustainable community practice. Social work practitioners embracing sustainability will also need to gain greater familiarity with current research on ecological concerns, such as the effects of toxic chemicals and environmental degradation on child development (Rogge, 1994, 2001) or the connection between our fossil fuel-based economy and the consequences for global warming (see, for example, Union of Concerned Scientists, 2000; NASA’s [2002] Global Change Master Directory, updated daily). The precautionary principle suggests a conservative approach to use of environmental resources, until research is more conclusive about the long-term effects of any given approach (Hardy & Lloyd, 1994). However, sophisticated practitioners will also recognize that political conservatives frequently use conflicting scientific opinions as an excuse for not being environmentally conservative. Calls for more study of an issue, such as the recovery of the salmon population in the Pacific Northwest, may be a cover for inaction and refusal to move toward more sustainable economic production practice.
The opportunity for social workers to work in sustainable community development will expand in the next half-century. Citizens faced with choosing among competing values and development approaches at the community level need the assistance of skilled facilitators and mediators. The contests for aggressive development at the local level can only be mediated by bringing together a diverse group of community members to engage in civil dialogue to establish common values and a redefinition of progress that is based on sustainability. These local efforts must be matched by equally energetic activity at the national and international levels to prevent the global destruction of air and water quality and the potentially serious results of global warming. As Estes described, the work of sustainable development is “political, social, and moral in nature” (1993, p. 15). We can work at the individual, community, regional, or global levels to make progress toward sustainable development.