Shane R Jimerson & Thomas D Oakland. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Context of School Psychology
The American colonies sought independence from England in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the United States of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the North American continent. The United States includes 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and various territories. In 2005, its population of 295,734,134 was distributed by age as follows: birth to 14, 21% (males 51%); 15 to 64, 67% (males 49%); and 65 and over, 12% (males 42%). Ethnic diversity is reported as White, 77%; Black, 13%; Asian, 4.2%; American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.5%;
Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 0.3%; and other, 4%. The landmass of the United States is 9,158,960 square kilometers. The United States borders both the North Atlantic and the North Pacific Oceans and lies between Canada and Mexico. The United States is about three tenths the size of Africa; half the size of Russia; half the size of South America (or slightly larger than Brazil); slightly larger than China; and about two and a half times the size of Western Europe. Its geography is diverse, with vast central plains; mountains in the west; hills and low mountains in the east; and mountains, river valleys, and volcanic topography in Alaska. During the past century, the growth of the U.S. economy has been somewhat steady, producing a gross domestic product of over US$11.7 trillion, US$40,100 per capita in 2004 (Central Intelligence Agency, 2005). The United States is among the leading industrial nations, highly diversified, and technologically advanced in such areas as petroleum, steel, motor vehicles, aerospace, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics, food processing, consumer goods, lumber, and mining. Employment includes managerial and professional, 31%; technical, sales, and administrative support, 29%; manufacturing, mining, transportation, and crafts, 24%; services, 14%; and farming, forestry, and fishing, 2%.
In 2002, 72 million children (defined as the population under age 18) resided in the United States (Fields, 2003). Children under age 6 account for approximately 23 million, those between ages 6 and 11 years account for approximately 24 million, and those between ages 12 and 17 account for approximately 24 million. Thus, children under age 18 make up 26% of the U.S. population. Sixty-nine percent of children live with two parents, 23% live with only their mother, 5% live with only their father, and another 4% live in households with neither biological parent present.
The educational system includes nursery school (ages 3 and 4), kindergarten (ages 5 and 6), Grades 1 through 12, and an extensive post-secondary system that includes vocational and technical schools, community and junior colleges, senior colleges, and graduate schools in universities. Approximately 90% of students are enrolled in publicly supported education programs. Kindergarten through Grade 5 typically is considered elementary school. Grades 6 through 8 usually are called middle school or junior high school, and Grades 9 through 12 constitute high school; together, they are considered to be secondary schools. Results of the 1999 U.S. Census indicated that 4.6 million children were in nursery school, 3.8 million in kindergarten, 16.8 million in Grades 1 through 4, 16.1 million in Grades 5 through 8, and 15.9 million in Grades 9 through 12. At the kindergarten through high school levels, enrollment numbers tend to mirror closely the population count in those ages, with close to 100% enrollment of the population ages 5 through 16 because of compulsory attendance requirements. Average class size during elementary school is estimated at 20 to 25 students. Class size during kindergarten generally is somewhat smaller and during middle and high school is somewhat larger.
The number of children attending nursery school has increased over the past 40 years, growing from approximately 0.5 million in 1964 to more than 4.5 million in 1999. Public kindergarten is available in most states. Among children enrolled in kindergarten, the majority are White non-Hispanics (60%), followed by Blacks (16%), Hispanics (17%), and Asians and Pacific Islanders (5%). The percentage of children attending kindergarten all day increased from 11% in 1969 to 58% in 2000. Furthermore, the majority of these children (59%) entered kindergarten with previous school experience, having been enrolled in nursery school the preceding year. Among elementary and secondary students, approximately 64% are White non-Hispanic, 16% Black, 15% Hispanic, and 5% Asian and Pacific Islander and other races. The school-age population is expected to become more diverse. During the past two decades, both births and immigration have contributed to increased numbers of students. During this period, births increased from 3.6 million to 4.0 million annually. Immigration also has added to school enrollment, with 20% of school-age children having at least one foreign-born parent; 5% of school-age children are themselves foreign born.
There also are private and parochial (e.g., religious-supported) schools. Children from families with higher incomes are more likely to be enrolled in them. Whereas 4% of children from families with incomes under $20,000 attend private schools, 14% of those from families with incomes of $40,000 or more attend such schools. Approximately 10% of students attend private or parochial school, a figure that has remained relatively stable since the 1970s.
The annual dropout rate (i.e., during a given year, students who withdraw from school prior to graduating from high school and are not enrolled in alternative educational programs) is approximately 4% to 5%. For example, during the 1-year period ending in October 1999, about 520,000 (4.7%) of all 10th- through 12th-grade students dropped out of high school. This rate has remained the same since 1997. The annual high school dropout rates of Blacks (6%) and Hispanics (7%) have been higher than that of White non-Hispanics (4%), while female and male dropout rates are relatively similar (4% and 5%, respectively). Whereas 9% of high school students from families with incomes below $20,000 dropped out of school during this 1-year period, 2% of those from families with incomes of $40,000 or more left school before graduation. Overall, roughly 15% of students do not complete high school (Kaufman, Alt, & Chapman, 2001). The percentage of 18- through 24-year-olds who completed high school in 2000 further reveals the disparate educational trajectories among diverse groups. Only 64% of Hispanic students and 84% of Black students completed high school in 2000, compared with 92% of White non-Hispanic and 95% of Asian and Pacific Islander students. Approximately 15 million students are enrolled in colleges and universities.
More than 6.5 million children receive special education services. During the 2000-2001 school year, nearly 12.5% of all students were classified as needing special education (Jamieson, Curry, & Martinez, 2001). Among these special education students, the percentage classified as displaying a learning disability has increased from 22% in 1977 to 46% in 1998 and in 2005 was approximately 50%. Spending for special education approximates $50 billion annually, or 21% of the budget for kindergarten through 12th-grade education. Approximately 55% of students who received special education services graduate with a high school diploma.
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
The origins of school psychology within the United States can be traced to child development, clinical psychology, and special education (Fagan, 1992; Fagan & Wise, 2000). The first psychological clinic, established at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer in 1896, generally is seen as marking the origin of school psychology. Witmer envisioned the preparation of pedagogical or psychological experts to work with children who did not benefit from ordinary educational methods. He later embodied this vision by serving as a school psychologist (Fagan, 1986). School psychology and other applied areas of psychology grew slowly during the following 50 years. Psychology departments, dominated by experimental scientists, generally were not interested in applied psychology.
The distinction of holding the first title of “school psychologist” belongs to Arnold Gessell, who was employed in 1915 by the state of Connecticut as a school psychologist following the receipt of doctoral degrees in psychology and medicine (Oakland, 1993). Before 1920, there were an estimated 100 to 150 school psychologists (Walter, 1925). Only a few were qualified psychologists (Wallin, 1914). Standards for preparing, credentialing, and licensing school and other applied psychologists did not begin to appear until the 1920s, initially in New York and adjacent states. In 1950, only 10 universities offered specific programs for preparing school psychologists.
Four national conferences focused on the future of school psychology; these were held in Thayer, 1951; Spring Hill, 1980; Olympia, 1981; and Indianapolis, 2002. Each discussed current and future demands for school psychologists, and the specialty’s ability to meet those demands, and offered ideas for maximizing the benefits to children and schools (see D’Amato, 2003; Fagan & Wise, 2000; Sheridan, 2004, for further discussion of these conferences).
Current Status
The American Psychological Association (http://www.apa.org) and the National Association of School Psychologists (http://www.nasponline.org) have approved definitions of school psychology. There is considerable consistency in these definitions. The American Psychological Association’s archival definition of the specialty of school psychology follows.
School psychology is a general practice and health service provider specialty of professional psychology that is concerned with the science and practice of psychology with children, youth, families; learners of all ages; and the schooling process. The basic education and training of school psychologists prepares them to provide a range of psychological assessment, intervention, prevention, health promotion, and program development and evaluation services with a special focus on the developmental process of children and youth within the context of schools, families, and other systems. School psychologists are prepared to intervene at the individual and systems level, and develop, implement, and evaluate preventive programs. In these efforts, they conduct ecologically valid assessments and intervene to promote positive learning environments within which children and youth from diverse backgrounds have equal access to effective educational and psychological services to promote healthy development. (American Psychological Association Council of Representatives, 1998)
As of 2005, an estimated 32,300 school psychologists practice in the United States (Charvat, 2005). They work in all 50 states and are most numerous in states with large populations and in the Northeast, upper Midwest, and the West (e.g., New York, New Jersey, Illinois, Ohio, California). As is true of other countries, proportionately more are found in urban and suburban than in rural areas (Fagan & Wise, 2000). Approximately 41% of school psychologists have a master’s degree, 28% have a specialist degree, and 30% have a doctoral degree (Curtis, Chesno Grier, Walker Abshier, Sutton, & Hunley, 2002). Their average age is 45, and, on average, they have 13 years experience as a school psychologist. Ninety-three percent are White, approximately 2% are Black, 3% are Hispanic, and 72% are women. The ratio between school psychologists and students is estimated to be approximately 1 to 1,680. Between one fourth (Thomas, 2000) and one third (Curtis, Chesno Grier, et al., 2002) of school psychology positions in the United States meet the ratio of 1 school psychologist for every 1,000 students, as recommended by the National Association of School Psychologists.
School psychologists work in numerous settings, including public and private schools, special schools, centers, and private practice. Seventy-eight percent are employed in public school settings. Among them, most work within the context of special education. Some work in university settings (7%) and private practice (5%). Smaller numbers work in mental health clinics, hospitals, and other medical settings and in research centers. School psychologists enjoy many employment opportunities. However, recent economic downturns in a few states have decreased the funding for education and related services. Thus, there are fewer resources to employ school psychologists and other educational professionals in these states. However, employment opportunities are very strong nationally.
Salaries vary somewhat across the country and are influenced by number of years of experience. School psychologists working in elementary and secondary schools average about $54,500 per year (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004). Those with 10 to 14 years of experience earn approximately $74,000, and those with 20 to 24 years of experience earn approximately $96,000 (Pate, Frincke, & Kohout, 2003). On average, individuals in the United States with doctoral degrees earn about $89,400 and those with master’s degrees average $62,300 (Day & Newburger, 2002).
Infrastructure of School Psychology
School psychology has developed a strong infrastructure at the national and state levels. The American Psychological Association does much to enhance the interests of school psychology, especially with respect to public policy. In addition, its Division of School Psychology advocates for school psychology within the American Psychological Association and nationally. School psychology also has its own national professional association, the National Association of School Psychologists, with more than 23,000 members. Other national organizations working on behalf of school psychology include the Council of Directors of School Psychology Programs, the National Association of State Consultants in School Psychology, the Society for the Study of School Psychology, and Trainers of School Psychology.
School psychologists report belonging to a variety of different professional organizations: Approximately 72% belong to the National Association of School Psychologists, 74% to state school psychological associations, 32% to the National Education Association, 31% to local teacher unions, 20% to the American Psychological Association, 13% to the American Psychological Association’s Division of School Psychology, 9% to the American Federation of Teachers, and 8% to the Council for Exceptional Children.
State laws govern the credentialing and licensing of school psychologists. In most states, only credentialed school psychologists are allowed to work in the schools as school psychologists. States typically also have separate laws that govern the licensure of psychology. State departments of education generally regulate the practice of school psychology within education. State boards of examiners of psychologists generally regulate the practice of Psychology as well as school psychology when practiced outside of education; some also regulate its practice within education. A national certification process allows school psychologists to become certified and licensed in more than one state. Credentialing requirements for school psychologists are discussed in the next section.
School psychology practice is influenced heavily by federal legislation that becomes established in policies promulgated by state education agencies and carried out by local education agencies (Oakland & Gallegos, 2005). These include the 1964 Civil Rights Act, Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Family Education Rights and Privacy Act of 1974, and the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002.
For example, in 1975, the U.S. Congress passed Public Law 94-142 (Education of All Handicapped Children Act), subsequently codified as the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. This initial legislation specified the receipt of federal funds required to develop and implement policies that assure a free appropriate public education to all children with disabilities. Amendments to this Act (e.g., Public Law 105-17 and Public Law 108-446) have provided further guidelines regarding the education of children with disabilities. In addition, Public Law 107-110, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, emphasizes a school’s accountability for promoting achievement, local control and flexibility, expanded parental choice, and use of effective research-based instruction. Such legislation has important implications for the preparation and practices of school psychologists. For example, both the No Child Left Behind legislation and the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 underscore the importance of implementing instructional strategies supported by empirical evidence. Moreover, the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 allows schools to discontinue use of a discrepancy formula to identify students with learning disabilities and to refer students for possible learning disabilities only after they do not show progress following intensive services. Given the recency of this legislation, its full impact on school psychology practices will not be known for years.
All professions are expected to establish uniform and recognized standards governing professional, scientific, educational, and ethical issues. Various standards that exemplify the profession’s values and principles and that serve the needs of service providers, clients, educators, the society, and legal bodies have been developed (Oakland, 1986). Standards prepared by the American Psychological Association include Psychology as a Profession (American Psychological Association, 1968), Guidelines for Conditions of Employment of Psychologists (American Psychological Association, 1972), Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Research With Human Subjects (American Psychological Association, 1973), Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & the National Council on Educational Research, 1999), Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Training Programs in Professional Psychology (American Psychological Association, 1996), “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct” (American Psychological Association, 2002), and Petition for Reaffirmation of the Specialty of School Psychology (American Psychological Association, 1997).
In addition, the Division of School Psychology (American Psychological Association, Division 16) has addressed various issues concerning standards in the following position papers: Guidelines to Work Conditions for School Psychologists; Test Protocols in Relation to Sole Possession Records; School Personnel Qualified to Provide Psychological Services to Pupils/Students, School Staffs, and Parents; School Psychology Internship; and State Legislative Mandates for School Psychological Services Encouraged.
The National Association of School Psychologists also has established standards. They include School Psychology: A Blueprint for Training and Practice II (Ysseldyke et al., 1997), Principles for Professional Ethics (National Association of School Psychologists, 2000b), Guidelines for the Provision of School Psychology Services (National Association of School Psychologists, 2000a), and Standards for the Credentialing of School Psychologists (National Association of School Psychologists, 2000c). Four national professional journals are intended to advance the knowledge and practice base of school psychology: Journal of School Psychology, School Psychology Quarterly, Psychology in the Schools, and School Psychology Review. Several school psychology journals that also are received by many school psychologists include The California School Psychologist, School Psychology International, Canadian Journal of School Psychology, and the Journal of Applied School Psychology. Sixteen secondary journals and 26 tertiary journals also contribute to the field’s literature (Reynolds & Gutkin, 1982, pp. 1169 1172). Numerous textbooks also discuss school psychology. Newsletters from the National Association of School Psychologists (i.e., Communiqué), the Division of School Psychology (i.e., The School Psychologist), and various state associations also contribute to the dissemination of information among school psychologists.
Preparation of School Psychologists
Approximately 8,500 students are enrolled in the nation’s 218 school psychology programs. Approximately 1,900 students graduate yearly with one of three degrees: master’s, specialist, or doctorate. In contrast to prevailing international practices (Oakland & Cunningham, 1999), no school psychology programs exist at the undergraduate level. Attainment of a master’s degree typically requires a 1- to 2-year program of 10 to 15 semester-long courses. Preparation at the specialist level typically involves a 3-year program that includes 20 or more semester-long courses and a 1-year supervised internship. Preparation at the doctoral level typically involves a 4- to 6-year program that includes 3 years of course-work (30 to 40 semester-long courses), a 1-year supervised internship, and a dissertation.
Approximately one third of the school psychology programs offer doctoral-level preparation, whereas the remaining two thirds offer preparation at the master’s or specialist levels. A number of programs offer both specialist and doctoral degrees. There are no national qualifications for admission into school psychology programs. Each program specifies its own admission criteria. Applicants generally must obtain at least an average score on the internationally administered Graduate Record Examination. Because all school psychology programs are at the graduate level, all students must first complete an undergraduate degree (e.g., bachelor of arts, bachelor of science). Although undergraduate degrees in psychology and education make candidates more competitive for admission, degrees in these fields are not required. Successful applicants often have experience working with children, and some have been teachers. However, a teaching credential is not required to become a school psychologist.
Efforts to prepare school psychologists have been influenced heavily by accreditation standards promulgated by the National Association of School Psychologists and the American Psychological Association. Quality school Psychology programs adhere to these standards. Programs offering only specialist degrees tend to be consistent with the National Association of School Psychologists standards, and those offering doctoral-level degrees often are consistent with both the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists standards. The National Association of School Psychologists standards are summarized in the next section.
Prevailing Philosophy Guiding Preparation and Practice
Current professional research literature as well as legal and ethics codes establish standards for practice. Furthermore, a prevailing view, particularly among advocates of doctoral-level school psychology, emphasizes the importance of a scientist-practitioner model for professional preparation and practice. This model advocates the belief that applications of psychology, including school psychology, should be supported empirically and theoretically and derived from a body of literature held in high esteem. This scientist-practitioner model emphasizes the importance of reciprocal relationships between scholarship and practice within psychology; each contributes to the other. Thus, school psychologists are expected to contribute to science and to base their practices on it.
There are diverse perspectives as to whether school psychology belongs in psychology or education. Some view school psychology as a specialty within the profession of psychology whose research base is derived largely from the discipline of psychology. Others view school psychology as a profession separate and independent from psychology and more clearly allied with education. Those who work in schools frequently identify closely with their colleagues in education. However, much of the scholarship and technology used in their work comes from psychology. Furthermore, legal and financial issues that often transcend both psychology and education increasingly govern practices. For example, federal legislation (e.g., the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act) delineates regulations to which states must adhere in order to receive federal funds. These regulations include numerous guidelines regarding individual education plans, appropriate means of determining whether students may have access to special education services, the education of children with disabilities, and evidence that students are receiving support (e.g., school psychology) services.
Training standards delineated by the National Association of School Psychologists (2000d) have impacted the curriculum and structure of most school psychology programs that offer the specialist degree and many that offer the doctoral degree. These training standards address program structure, domains of school psychology training and practice, field experience and internship, performance-based program assessment, and program support and resources. The National Association of School Psychologists standards
serve to guide the design of school Psychology graduate education by providing a basis for program evaluation and a foundation for the recognition of programs that meet national quality standards through the National Association of School Psychologists program approval process. (2000d, p. 7)
The domains of school psychology training and practice are (1) databased decision making and accountability; (2) consultation and collaboration; (3) effective instruction and development of cognitive/academic skills; (4) socialization and development of life skills; (5) student diversity in development and learning; (6) school and systems organization, policy development, and climate; (7) prevention, crisis intervention, and mental health; (8) home/school/community collaboration; (9) research and program evaluation; (10) school psychology practice and development; and (11) information technology. Students in specialist programs approved by the National Association of School Psychologists complete a 3-year program, including a 1,200-hour supervised internship. Many programs also offer a master’s degree en route to the specialist degree.
Through addressing these training standards, programs emphasize (a) core academic knowledge of psychology (e.g., development, learning and cognition, educational, personality, social, experimental, biological, statistics, and research design); (b) assessment services (e.g., intellectual, academic, emotional, and social assessment); (c) intervention services (e.g., behavioral, affective, educational, and social-systems); (d) focus on children and youth (e.g., within the context of classrooms, schools, families, communities, and other systems); (e) interpersonal skills (e.g., establishing trust and rapport, listening and communication skills, respect for the views and expertise of others, recognition of the assets and limitations of other professionals, and a mature understanding of issues and effective methods to address them); (f) professional decision-making skills (e.g., the ability to consider important qualities that characterize the child and the contexts within which the child is being raised, being informed by research, and being motivated by problem-solving orientations that consider the viability of alternative courses of actions); (g) knowledge of statistical methods and research design (e.g., often prepared within one of two models: as a good consumer of research and other forms of scholarship or as a scientist and practitioner); and (h) knowledge of the legal and ethical basis for services (e.g., laws, administrative rulings, and other regulations as well as ethics codes governing practice).
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
School psychology services may be characterized within six broad delivery systems. The following provides a brief description of each.
Individual psychoeducational evaluations frequently are conducted on students referred for possible special education services. School psychologists typically evaluate a student’s cognitive (i.e., intelligence and achievement), affective, social, emotional, and linguistic characteristics while utilizing educational and psychological assessment techniques.
Direct services are utilized to promote academic, social, and emotional development through tutoring, teaching, and counseling.
School psychologists provide indirect services to students by working individually or with groups of parents, teachers, principals, and other educators who are responsible for direct interventions. Indirect services may involve assessments, participation in child study teams, in-service programs, consultation, and collaboration.
Research and evaluation activities are intended to assist professionals in education and psychology to develop a body of literature on which to base their practices.
Supervision and administration services enable school psychologists to administer pupil personnel and psychological services. In this capacity, they are responsible for conceptualizing and promoting a comprehensive plan for these services, for hiring and supervising personnel, for promoting their development, and for coordinating these services with other psychological and social services provided in the community.
Prevention services are designed either to prevent the occurrence of problems or to minimize their deleterious impact should they occur. Prevention programs often focus on drug and alcohol abuse, suicide, dropouts, school violence, and pregnancies.
The specialty of school psychology is prepared to provide the aforementioned services, with individual school psychologists providing them in varying degrees. The responsibilities of a particular school psychologist rarely encompass all areas and domains described in the previous paragraphs. The quantity and nature of services often differ for preschool, elementary, and secondary students. Nationally, school psychologists devote about 5% of their time to preschool, 60% to elementary, 20% to middle school, and 15% to senior high students. Also, national survey data reveal demographic and regional variability in current roles, job satisfaction, assessment practices, and system reform attitudes and beliefs of school psychologists (Curtis, Hunley, & Chesno Grier, 2002; Curtis, Hunley, Walker, & Baker, 1999; Hosp & Reschly, 2002; Reschly, 2000).
Tests commonly used to assess achievement, intellectual abilities, personality and temperament, and behavior and social skills vary across the United States. The following is a brief list of some of the most commonly used tests. Achievement tests include the Wood cock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement, Peabody Individual Achievement Test III, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II, and the Wide Range Achievement Test 4. Intelligence tests include the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence III, Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities, Differential Ability Scales, Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II, and the Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test. Measures of personality and temperament include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent, Personality Inventory for Children-II, and the Student Styles Inventory. Measures of social and emotional behaviors include the Behavior Assessment System for Children-II, Child Behavior Checklist, Social Skills Rating Scale, Beck Youth Inventories of Emotional and Social Impairment, and the Conners Parent and Teacher Rating Scales-Revised. Measures of adaptive behavior include the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System-II and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-II.
School psychologists who work mainly in special education typically devote about 32% of their time to students with learning disabilities, 22% to those with behavioral and emotional problems, 14% to those with mental retardation, and 16% to the general school population (Smith, 1984). School psychologists also devote smaller amounts of time to students who are talented and gifted (4%) and to those exhibiting acuity (3%), physical (2%), and speech (2%) disorders. When asked how they actually spend their time and how they would prefer to spend their time, school psychologists indicated they actually spend about 54% but would prefer to spend 40% of their time in assessment activities, they spend 23% but would prefer to spend 30% of their time in interventions (e.g., counseling, program development), they spend 18% but would prefer to spend 23% on consultation, and they spend 1% but would prefer to spend 4% on research (Smith, 1984).
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
The National Association of School Psychologists and other organizations have advocated for the preparation of more school psychologists. There may be a shortage of school psychology practitioners (Curtis, Hunley, et al., 2002), particularly in some areas of the country. In addition, large numbers of school psychology faculty positions remain unfilled. The numerous openings and reshuffling of current faculty reflect a lack of doctoral graduates entering academia. This is particularly disconcerting for the future of school psychology, including the preparation of school psychologists and scholarship.
The recent federal legislation described earlier places an emphasis on implementing evidence-based interventions to facilitate academic achievement and allows for the implementation of response-to-intervention strategies in identifying special needs of students. Thus, school psychology programs are likely to increasingly emphasize these topics. Also, in light of federal legislation, some graduate programs have begun to focus more narrowly on efforts that promote academic achievement.