Lukas Scherer, Heinz Bösch, Paul Zeberli. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Context of School Psychology
Switzerland is located in Central Europe, with a western border of France, northern border of Germany, southern border of Italy, and eastern border of Austria. Its landmass is 41,000 square kilometers, a high percentage of which is the Alps. Switzerland is divided into 29 regional provinces, referred to as cantons. Its population, about 7.3 million (47% male; Bundesamt für Statistik, 2006), is varied culturally and uses four official languages: German, French, Italian, and a Roman-oriented language (Romansch). Among its population are 465,000 primary school students (6% of the population), 295,000 secondary school students (4%), and 400,000 students in higher education or apprenticeships (4%), about 90,000 of whom are attending a university. Persons ages 20 through 39 constitute 28% of the population; 40 through 64, 34%; and over 64, 16%. Approximately 42% of marriages end in divorce. Households average 2.24 persons. Switzerland has a prosperous and stable market economy, along with low unemployment (3%), a highly skilled labor force, and a per capita gross domestic product larger than many of the Western European economies. In 2004, the annual gross domestic product was about US$251.9 billion, with an average per capita income of US$33,800.
Attendance in Grades 1 through 9 is compulsory. Each of the 26 cantons (i.e., regional states or provinces) has its own educational system. All provincial educational directors attempt to coordinate their different systems with the goal of achieving an educational system that is similar throughout the country. Nevertheless, educational conditions differ, especially between the French- and Italian-speaking cantons. Schools are governed locally and are supervised by elected representatives.
The following description applies mainly to school systems within German-speaking cantons, where the majority of the population lives. Children enter school at age 6 or 7 and remain there for the next 9 years. The dropout rate is low, less than 1%. Most students attend public school. The number of students who attend private schools (5%10%) is small but increasing. Depending on the canton, primary education extends for 4 to 6 years, and secondary education extends for 3 to 5 years. Secondary school students are grouped in two to four academic ability levels. After completing primary or secondary school, students with high achievement may elect to enter a gymnasium. Approximately 15% to 20% of students pass an exam and attend a gymnasium. Graduation from a gymnasium is a commonly used pathway to enter a university. Most students enter an apprenticeship after completing secondary school. Apprenticeships are popular because they promote technical and professional skills as well as provide further education in specific schools. Apprentices often work on the job for 3 days and attend school for 2 days. During their apprenticeship, persons can apply to enter a university program in applied sciences.
Switzerland has a well-developed system for students with special needs. About 5% of primary school students (http://www.bista.zh.ch/vs/VS_Stufen.htm) receive special education services through inclusive, small classes, or separate institutions. Public school special education classes typically average about 10 to 14 students. They include students with minor learning disabilities, behavior problems, and non-German-speaking immigrant children. Most public schools provide forms of inclusive education. In some subjects, students with learning disabilities obtain their instruction in small groups. Several different institutions (e.g., special needs schools, apprenticeships for handicapped children in protected institutions) specialize in serving some children with special needs, including those with intellectual, physical, language, or attention deficit disorders. During the past few years, the average class size for all students has increased, going from about 20 students in primary school and fewer in secondary schools in the 1980s to current levels of 25 to 27 in primary grades and 22 to 24 in secondary grades.
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
School psychology in Switzerland started in 1919 in Geneva (Caglar, 1983; Wall, 1956), where Claparède first used the term school psychology (Gerber, 1994). In 1920, the first school psychology service was established in Bern and was called an educational consultation center. In Basel, the first service was in 1927, 1939 in St. Gallen, and 1942 in Lucerne. Until the mid 1960s, school psychology was mainly administered by teachers with further education; from about 1975 on, more persons educated in psychology were working in school psychology (Gerber, 1994). The development of school psychology was closely associated with the growth of special education, especially the need to evaluate students who were experiencing school-related difficulties, leading to diagnoses, special education placement, and interventions. A law that required students to be assessed by school psychologists contributed importantly to school psychologists’ employment in German-speaking areas. During the past 15 years, school Psychology has been accepted, especially by parents who see that their children are receiving additional and needed educational services.
The term school psychologist typically is used in German-speaking areas. In Bern, the terms educational adviser or educational psychologistare used. The Swiss Association for Child and Youth Psychology prefers the use of child psychologist or psychologist for youth.
Across Switzerland, there are about 800 school psychologists, 60% of whom are females. Some 650 are members of the Swiss Association for Child and Youth Psychology. Although annual salaries differ between the cantons, they often begin at approximately US$50,000 and go up to US$100,000 for those with the most experience. Most school psychologists are employed by public institutions organized by local schools or, in some areas, by the cantons. Some school psychologists work as consultants in special public schools and psychiatric institutions. School psychologists work more frequently in urban than rural areas. The ratio between school psychologists and students is lower in rural than urban areas. The ratio of school psychologists to students varies from 1 to 1,000 to 1 to 6,000. Many school psychologists have been employed in their positions for many years. They often feel overwhelmed from working overtime, and some experience professional burnout.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
School psychology is represented by regional, district, and national professional associations. The Schweizerische Vereinigung für Kinder- und Jugendpsychologie (Swiss Association for Child and Youth Psychology) serves as its national association. Membership in this association requires a person to have a university degree in psychology and employment as a school psychologist. Associations have their most important impact at the provincial level—the location of school systems. Although school psychologists do not hold a professional license, they can use the restricted and protected terms child psychologist or psychologist for youth (Swiss Federation of Psychologists, http://www.psychologie.ch) that refer to the specialization of school psychology. These titles are awarded after completing a graduate program of 750 hours. Some cantons require school psychologists to hold the title “child and youth psychologist” or “educational psychologist.” Few regulations govern school psychology practice. Those that impact their practice generally address services provided to special needs students, especially assessment services.
The Swiss Association for Child and Youth Psychology sponsors one semiannual journal for school psychology, Psychologie und Erziehung (Psychology and Education). The Swiss Federation of Psychologists publishes Psychoscope (Psychology Review), which includes articles on education and school psychology.
Preparation of School Psychologists
Preparation to become a school psychologist takes, on average, 5 to 6 years to obtain a graduate degree. The University of Lausanne offers the only graduate program designed specifically for school and vocational counseling. This program has few students. School psychologists must obtain a master’s degree. Most obtain a graduate degree in applied, clinical, or child psychology.
A degree from the University of Applied Psychology in Zurich requires 4 years and currently offers the degree of Diploma in Clinical Psychology. After 2007, this university will offer a master’s degree. Although the nature of the courses to prepare school psychologists are not regulated, every psychologist who completes a master’s degree may be employed as a school psychologist. The Swiss Federation of Psychologists prefers school psychologists to use the title “child and youth psychologist.” However, the use of this title is not regulated in law. Efforts by the canton of Zurich to regulate school psychology have been successful: The last vote on public schools resulted in school psychology being included in the law for the first time. The specific nature of its regulations will be determined later. The canton of Bern requires school psychologists to complete a 2-year graduate education program in educational psychology.
University programs in psychology typically require 2 years of basic education (e.g., statistics, personality psychology, applied psychology, clinical psychology, child psychology, developmental and social psychology). On completing these courses, students decide to specialize in one of the following areas: clinical, applied, child, developmental and social, or personality psychology. Students also select two additional subjects for studying (e.g., psychopathology). During the last 2 years, psychology students have considerable flexibility in designing their programs. Students also complete applied courses and a 3- to 6-month internship. The canton of Bern requires a 1-year internship following the completion of a master’s degree. Some agencies that employ school psychologists require additional preparation in psychotherapy. On beginning their work, school psychologists often take additional courses, including supervision, in order to further advance their knowledge and professional abilities.
During the 1990s, the Swiss Association for Child and Youth Psychology (http://www.skjp.ch) strengthened a specialized postgraduate education program by clarifying and adding requirements for those who desire to hold the title “child and youth psychologist.” To enter this program, a psychologist must have a university degree in psychology. This postgraduate program requires 750 hours of coursework, including 300 hours in diagnosis, counseling, and developmental and organizational Psychology, and another 150 hours of supervised work. Psychologists can select other relevant courses for an additional 150 hours. Finally, 150 hours are reserved for research.
School psychologists, as well as general psychologists, take courses in cognitive, applied, personality, developmental, educational, social, and philosophical psychology; statistics and research methods; intervention methods; and counseling. Additional program requirements may include neuropathology, neuropsychology, psychopathology, pharmacology, psychotherapy (e.g., systemic approach, psychoanalysis, cognitive-behavioral psychology), and special education. Although testing and other assessment methods are acquired through coursework, most school psychologists acquire these skills during their practicum and internship experiences in schools, psychiatry clinics, or child care centers. Little attention is devoted to legal and ethical issues. All cantons require a university degree for employment (Milic, 2001).
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
A school psychologist may be responsible for multiple schools within a community or for a particular school district within a city. Their basic responsibility is to promote student development in all areas of public schools (regular education, special education, boarding schools). Their roles include assessing students and recommending interventions (e.g., learning support, special local education). This work requires them to meet with the student, parents, other caretakers if needed, and teachers to review the assessment results and recommendations. About 40% of their time is devoted to assessment; 30% to meetings and consultation; 20% to administrative work, intervention, organizational tasks, and prevention activities; and 10% for continuous education and informal meetings in schools. Implementation of interventions is less common but does happen with individuals, families, or at the systems level. A study in the canton of Zurich (Milic, 2001) found that school psychologists spent the majority of their time assessing children (57%). School psychologists are supervised by experienced colleagues. School psychologists regularly consult with other professionals as well as local and state educational authorities.
Commonly used tests include the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III, Cattell Culture Fair Test, personality tests including the Wartegg Test and the Zulliger Test (a form of Rorschach Test for children), and the Draw-A-Tree/Person/Family tests. In addition, school psychologists commonly use several sentence-completion forms to assess personality, questionnaires to assess behavior problems and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and tests to assess psychomotor skills, visual perception, and memory. Student achievement is assessed, including spelling, through the Salzburger Lese- und Rechtschreibe Test and Diagnostischer Rechtschreibe Test; reading, through the Zürcher Lesetest and Zurcher Leseverständnis Test; and math tests for certain grades (Rechentest for Grades 1-4).
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
In some cantons (i.e., Bern), school psychological services are regulated by law. Professional associations representing school psychology are attempting to establish laws that require the use of school psychology services in some German-speaking cantons that do not have such laws. In addition, school psychologists are beginning to be employed in family care centers.
The legalization of services and specifying the nature of school psychology professional preparation programs are important issues in those areas that lack such policies. School psychology is unlikely to obtain these goals at this time. Some changes in school law will occur in the coming years, at which time school psychologists must help ensure their services are acknowledged in the law.