Hyunhee Chung & Hyeonsook Shin. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Context of School Psychology
South Korea is located in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, in the northeastern corner of the Asian continent. South Korea’s neighbors are North Korea to the north, Japan across the Sea of Korea (also known as the East Sea) to the southeast, and China across the Yellow Sea to the west. The area of the peninsula is 222,154 square kilometers, of which about 45% (99,313 square kilometers) constitutes the territory of South Korea. In 2004, the population was estimated to be 48,598,175. The average age has changed, largely due to falling birth rates and rising life expectancies. According to a 2004 estimate, 20% of the population is younger than age 15, 71% is 15 to 64, and 8% is 65 or older. By 2030, more than 20% of the population is expected to be 65 or older. South Korea’s economy underwent a profound transformation during the latter half of the 20th century. Per capita income in South Korea grew 100-fold in four decades. South Korea is now a nation with one of the highest rates of Internet access, a leader in semiconductor production, and a global innovator in consumer electronics. In 2004, the gross domestic product was US$925 billion, US$19,200 per capita. The unemployment rate is estimated at 3.6%.
As of July 2005, an estimated 11,984,000 children (or 25% of the country’s population) were under age 18 (National Statistical Office, 2005). During the 2004 school year, 1,984,265 students were enrolled in schools, among whom 689,414 were in elementary schools, 597,120 in middle schools, 594,474 in high schools, and 103,257 in colleges or universities. The education system consists of 6-year elementary schools, 3-year middle schools, 3-year high schools, and 4-year colleges or universities that offer undergraduate and graduate education leading to master’s or doctoral degrees. There also are 2-to 3-year junior colleges and vocational colleges.
Elementary school attendance is compulsory, with an enrollment rate of almost 100%. In 2004, there were 5,541 elementary schools (5,466 public, 75 private). The majority of elementary school children (98.8%) attended public schools. The average number of students per teacher was 26.2. On completing elementary school, children ages 12 through 14 attend middle schools. In 2004, there were 2,888 middle schools, and 80% of the students attended public schools. The student-teacher ratio for middle schools was 19 to 1 in 2004 and 42 to 1 in 1970.
There are two types of high schools: vocational and general. Applicants for vocational high schools select the school they want to attend and are admitted through examinations administered by each school. As of 2004, there were 729 vocational high schools with 514,550 students. Among general high schools, several specialize in art, physical education, science, or foreign languages. Courses at general high schools tend to prepare students to enter universities. As of 2004, there were 1,351 general high schools with a total enrollment of 1.23 million students, 53% of whom attended public schools. The average number of students per teacher was 14.
Education is compulsory through the ninth grade. Although preschool education is not compulsory, its importance has been increasingly recognized. Since 1999, the federal government has instituted a nationwide project to subsidize kindergarten tuition for children from low-income families, thus providing underprivileged children with increased opportunities for preschool education and thereby establishing a more equitable educational environment. In 2004, 99.7% of middle school graduates advanced to high schools. Among high school graduates, 89.8% of those who graduated from general high schools and 62% from vocational high schools continued their education in institutions offering advanced education (National Statistical Office, 2005). The dropout rate was 0.7% for middle school students, 1.2% for general high school students, and 3.4% for vocational high school students.
Higher education offers several types of institutions: colleges and universities with 4-year undergraduate programs (6 years for medical and dental colleges), 4-year teachers’ universities, 2-year junior vocational colleges, and a correspondence university, open universities, and miscellaneous schools of collegiate status with 2- or 4-year programs such as nursing and theology. As of 2004, there were 411 institutions of higher education, with 3.56 million students and 64,019 faculty.
As of 2004,141 special schools had an enrollment of 23,762 students. They included 6 schools for students with psychological problems, 12 for students with visual impairments, 18 for students with hearing impairments, 20 for students with physical impairments, and 85 for students with mental retardation. In addition, 28,002 students with disabilities received special education in 4,366 special classes in regular schools. These schools provide general education and vocational transition programs designed to prepare students for productive employment and independent lives.
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
The history of school psychology in South Korea goes back to the late 1980s. In 1987, Dr. Sang-Cheol Han, an educational psychologist, created the first graduate-level school psychology program within the Department of Psychology at Yonsei University in Seoul. Although this program later became a combined program (school/counseling), it served a leading role in the development of school psychology in South Korea. Over the past two decades, the school psychology program at Yonsei University has produced at least 5 doctoral-level school psychologists and more than 40 master’s-level school psychologists.
In 1995, Dr. Hyunhee Chung joined the school psychology program at Yonsei University as an instructor, after having finished her doctorate in school psychology at Rutgers University in New Jersey. In 2000, Dr. Chung took a faculty position in the school counseling program at Keimyung University but continued to collaborate with Dr. Han to establish the school psychology profession in South Korea. In 2002, Dr. Hyeonsook Shin, who had obtained her doctorate in school psychology from the University of Minnesota, joined the faculty at the Chonnam National University and began teaching both undergraduate and graduate students in school psychology.
Despite the pioneering efforts by Dr. Han and support from Drs. Chung and Shin, the specialty of school psychology has developed slowly, due, in part, to an absence of laws and regulations governing school psychologists’ professional roles, limited professional resources for training, undeveloped professional associations, lack of credentialing systems, and a limited job market for school psychologists.
However, school psychology reached a turning point in 2002, when the Korean School Psychology Association was founded as the 12th division of the Korean Psychological Association. Although the Korean Society for School Psychology, which was initiated by educational psychologists in Busan, already existed, its impact was largely regional. Therefore, the Korean School Psychology Association has been consistently recognized as the first national-level professional organization established by psychologists with interests in school psychology. Dr. Han served as the first and second president of the Korean School Psychology Association, and Dr. Chung is currently serving as the third president.
The Korean School Psychology Association has approximately 60 registered members (as of May 2006). About half have a doctoral degree in school psychology or related areas such as counseling, clinical, developmental, and educational psychology. The remaining members are graduate students at Yonsei University, the Chonnam National University, Keimyung University, and other universities. Almost 100% of the members work and reside in large cities. Most members with a doctoral degree are university or college faculty. However, some work as practicing psychologists at public or private counseling centers for youth.
The term school psychology has been used to describe the specialty itself and also the university training programs. There is no official job title such as “school psychologist.” Psychological services similar to those provided by school psychologists in the United States are performed by teachers called “school counselors” or “professional counseling teachers” in Korean schools, including special schools. This situation poses a serious challenge, as it lowers the quality of services received by students and limits job opportunities for school psychologists and other professional psychologists who are well trained and want to work in school settings.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
Psychology, in general, has developed a relatively strong infrastructure at both the national and regional levels. The Korean Psychological Association, a national professional association of psychologists, has 11 divisions: Health Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Social Issues, Personality and Social Psychology, Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Counseling Psychology, Consumer and Advertising Psychology, Experimental Psychology, Women’s Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and School Psychology. School psychology is now at the initial stage of developing its infrastructure at the national level.
Two professional associations serve the interests of scholars, graduate students, and practicing psychologists in school psychology. The Korean School Psychology Association was established as a national-level division of the Korean Psychological Association in 2002. The Korean Society for School Psychology was originally established in 1995 as a regional division of the Korean Society for Educational Psychology.
In contrast to school psychology, which is still in its infancy, clinical, counseling, and educational psychology divisions have a long history and have established both national- and regional-level professional associations. Although faculty and students in school psychology primarily are affiliated with the Korean School Psychology Association, they also participate in the activities of other professional associations serving the interests of counseling, clinical, and educational psychologists (e.g., Korean Clinical Psychology Association, Korean Counseling Psychological Association, Korean Counseling Association, Korean Society for Educational Psychology). For example, the Division of School Counseling and the Division of Child and Adolescent Counseling at the Korean Counseling Association attract the interests of scholars and students in school psychology.
Currently, only two journals are published with the goal of disseminating information that advances the knowledge and practice of school psychology. The Korean Journal of School Psychology is the official journal of the Korean School Psychology Association. The Journal of School Psychology is the official journal of the Korean Society for School Psychology. Both journals are published biannually.
Graduate students and scholars in school psychology also read the official journals of clinical, counseling, developmental, and educational psychology associations (i.e., Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, Korean Journal of Counseling and Psychotherapy, Korean Journal of Counseling, Korean Journal of Developmental Psychology, and Korean Journal of Educational Psychology). Those who are interested in youth counseling and community mental health also read the Korean Journal of Youth Counseling, published by the Korean Youth Counseling Institute.
In South Korea, the official job title of “school psychologist” and licensure of such do not exist. Thus, no statistical data or records regarding their activities and professional affiliations are available. No national or regional laws govern the credentialing or licensing of school psychologists. Except for a few professionals (e.g., youth counselors, mental health clinical psychologists, and school counselors), most psychologists are licensed through the credentialing processes of the professional associations with which they are affiliated. For example, clinical psychologists obtain their licenses (Professional Clinical Psychologist, Clinical Psychologist Level 1, Clinical Psychologist Level 2) in accordance with the licensing regulations of the Korean Clinical Psychology Association. Counseling psychologists obtain their licensure (Counseling Psychologist Level 1, Counseling Psychologist Level 2) in accordance with the licensing regulations of the Korean Counseling Psychological Association. Counselors obtain their licenses (Supervising Professional Counselor, Counselor Level 1, Counselor Level 2) in accordance with the licensing regulations of the Korean Counseling Association.
Since 2004, the Korean School Psychology Association has worked to establish credentialing and licensing regulations for school psychologists. The licensing board of the Korean School Psychology Association expects to finish preparing credentialing and licensing regulations for school psychologists and ethical/professional standards by the end of 2006. The Korean Society for School Psychology is also currently in the process of developing regulations for the licensure of school psychologists.
As of 2006, credentialing/licensing requirements and ethical/professional standards for school psychologists and laws and regulations for school psychological services do not exist. However, the Guidelines for Psychological Testing (Korean Psychological Association, 1998), which provides specific guidelines for the development and use of psychological tests in clinical, school, and industrial settings and for assessment of people with disabilities, is expected to influence the regulation of school psychological services, in particular, assessment services in schools.
Compared with most psychologists (including school psychologists) who would be certified and licensed through the credentialing and licensing processes of their professional organizations, youth counselors, mental health clinical psychologists, and school counselors (also known as professional counseling teachers) are licensed under the laws and regulations of national ministries. Regulations from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism govern the credentialing and licensing of youth counselors (Levels 1,2, and 3), those from the Ministry of Health and Welfare govern the credentialing and licensing of mental health clinical psychologists (Levels 1 and 2), and those of the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development govern the credentialing and licensing of school counselors (Levels 1 and 2).
In South Korea, those who want to work as school counselors in elementary and secondary schools need to earn teacher certificates before applying for school counselor licenses, and employment in schools is possible only in accordance with the laws and regulations of the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development. Thus, the licensure of school counselors is governed by the Elementary and Secondary Education Law of the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development. This law also stipulates the placement of itinerant school counselors at educational administrative organizations and facilities at city and provincial areas. Some roles and functions of school counselors in South Korea resemble those of school psychologists in the United States.
In addition, several other national laws and regulations have implications for psychologists in general and for school psychologists in particular. For example, laws and regulations of the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development (e.g., laws governing gifted education, school health, special education, and early childhood education) have implications for the professional practice of psychologists in general (e.g., screening, assessment, therapy, consultation).
Although special education laws and regulations in South Korea do not delineate the roles and functions of school psychologists in particular, or those of psychologists in general, they do have important implications for the roles and functions of school psychologists, because they include stipulations on the following practices. Current special education laws and regulations stipulate eight disability categories (visual impairments, hearing impairments, mental retardation, physical disabilities, emotional disorders, speech and language disorders, learning disabilities, and health impairments); psychological services such as psychotherapy, counseling, and assessment for students with disabilities and their families; supportive services for regular education teachers in inclusive classrooms; and placement of therapeutic education teachers in schools.
Preparation of School Psychologists
In South Korea, many universities offer programs to prepare psychologists. However, only two universities, Yonsei University and the Chonnam National University, offer graduate-level programs for students majoring in school psychology.
At Yonsei University, students majoring in school psychology are admitted into the combined program of school and counseling psychology. Four to five school psychology students are admitted annually into the master’s program and one or two students into the doctoral program. From 1987 to 1997, the average number of students who completed the school psychology program at the master’s level was one or two each year. However, it increased to eight in 2002. Since 1997, when the first doctorate in school psychology was granted by Yonsei University, one or two students each year have completed their doctorates in school psychology at Yonsei University. Compared with Yonsei University, Chonnam National University’s school Psychology program has a relatively short history. Chonnam National University began its school psychology program in 2002. As of May 2006, only one student has completed a master’s degree at the Chonnam National University.
The school psychology program at Yonsei University is in the Department of Psychology, whereas the school psychology program at the Chonnam National University is in the Department of Education. Accordingly, curricula for the school psychology programs at the two universities are somewhat different.
The Department of Psychology at Yonsei University requires 30 semester credits for the completion of a master’s degree in school psychology and 60 semester credits for the completion of a doctoral degree. Thirty of the 60 semester credits required for the doctoral degree can be earned through the master’s program. Regardless of the degree level and the specialization program, all students are required to take two core courses (advanced psychological statistics and experimental design) and then are free to take other courses offered in the department. School psychology majors usually are advised to take school psychology courses; these courses cover the following areas: intervention, assessment, consultation, research methods, ethical issues, advanced school psychology, and a seminar on psychological services in the school. In addition, students pursuing the master’s degree also are required to earn 6 practicum credits. Practicum and/or internship credits are not required for those pursuing doctoral degrees.
The Chonnam National University school psychology program requires master’s students to earn at least 24 semester credits and doctoral students to earn at least 36 semester credits. School psychology students are required to take basic core courses (i.e., research in education, qualitative research methods in education, quantitative research methods in education) and professional practice of school psychology courses (i.e., assessment in school psychology-intellectual domain, assessment in school psychology-affective domain, remedial instruction for learning problems, school psychological interventions-affective domain, and school-based consultation). School psychology students also are advised to take foundations of school psychology courses (i.e., seminars in school psychology issues; school psychology research), psychological foundations courses (i.e., child neuropsychology, developmental psychopathology, child and adolescent psychology), related courses (e.g., understanding of exceptional students, positive psychology in education), or counseling psychology courses. Each course is 3 credits.
In South Korea, school psychology programs provide graduate students with courses on assessment services and intervention and consultation services. The most common areas of assessment and the tests used to assess those areas are the following (all tests are Korean versions): (a) intellectual abilities (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Wechsler Intelligence for Children, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Pictorial Test of Intelligence, and Draw-A-Person Test); (b) achievement (Basic Learning Skills Test); (c) personality (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent, Personality Assessment Inventory, Personality Inventory for Children, California Psychological Inventory, Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, Thematic Apperception Test, and Children’s Apperception Test); (d) emotion, behavior, and social skills (Child Behavior Checklist, Youth Self-Report, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-KYZ, Beck Depression Inventory, Children’s Depression Inventory, sentence completion test, and projective drawing tests such as the House-Tree-Person Test and the Kinetic Family Drawing Test); and (e) others (Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, Symptom Checklist-90-Revised, interviews, and behavioral observations).
As of May 2006, no school psychology graduates had secured positions as school psychologists in schools, as there is no such job title. A few graduates are practicing privately, providing consulting or counseling services. Others work as counselors at community counseling centers or as researchers at universities or government-funded centers. Because credentialing and licensing regulations for school psychologists have not been established, students majoring in school psychology only have to complete the academic and practicum requirements of the program for which they have registered. Except for master’s students at Yonsei University, practicum/intern-ship requirements are not enforced. Students usually seek to acquire necessary practicum experience on an individual basis through case conferences and workshops provided by professional organizations.
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
The Korean School Psychology Association delineates the roles of prospective school psychologists in accordance with the scientist-practitioner model. The roles of school psychologists are characterized within five broad service delivery systems: assessment, intervention and prevention, consultation, program development and training, and research. However, because no one is working with the official job title of “school psychologist” in South Korea, the roles, functions, and responsibilities of school psychologists described next are given by the Korean School Psychology Association only as guidelines for the delivery of school psychological services and the preparation of school psychologists.
Assessment services for children and adolescents are provided so that data are collected and decisions are made about the children and adolescents. Prevention and intervention services are provided for students experiencing maladaptive problems and those at risk. A recent survey (Shin, Kim, & Lyu, 2004) revealed that secondary school teachers in South Korea strongly acknowledge the necessity and importance of prevention and intervention services (particularly for juvenile delinquency, career indecision, emotional problems, school adjustment problems), among other school psychological services. Consultation services are provided to help parents and teachers enhance healthy adjustment of children and adolescents who display various problems (e.g., developmental delays, learning problems, social skills deficits, and emotional and behavioral problems). Program development and training services are provided mainly to develop competence enhancement programs for normally developing students and to develop therapeutic/counseling programs for maladaptive students and their teachers and parents. Research is conducted to gain a deeper understanding of the problems of children and adolescents, to develop reliable and valid assessment methods and procedures, and to test the effects of intervention and prevention programs.
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
During the past two decades, school Psychology has improved slowly yet significantly. The founding of a national-level professional organization, the Korean School Psychology Association, with its own academic journal, constitutes the most salient achievement and a big step toward establishing its future. However, the Korean School Psychology Association is new and faces many challenges and problems (Chung, 2000, 2003; Shin, 2003).
First, the Korean School Psychology Association must promote professionalism by developing standards and guidelines for the delivery of school psychological services and the preparation of school psychologists. The Association also should attempt to develop regulations for the licensure of school psychologists that lead to certified or licensed school psychologists serving national interests. In addition, the number of graduate-level training programs should be increased.
Second, the term school psychology is unfamiliar to South Koreans. Since school Psychology, and psychology in general, has roots in Western culture, the term school psychology is not an easy concept for those who have limited experience with that culture. Therefore, the Korean School Psychology Association should consider selecting a term that conveys the concept in a way that is consistent with Korean culture. Once the term is selected, the Association needs to disseminate information about school psychology to laypeople as well as to professionals through various means (e.g., printed materials, the Internet, seminars, workshops).
Third, the Korean School Psychology Association should make an effort to form close relationships with other professional associations and individuals. The Division of School Psychology remains the Korean Psychological Association’s newest division. Thus, many Korean Psychological Association members do not have a clear understanding of school psychology and the goals of this division. By providing a clear description of school psychology and communicating more with other divisions within the Korean Psychological Association (e.g., counseling, clinical, and developmental psychology), the Korean School Psychology Association should be able to attract more Korean Psychological Association members into its division and maintain good relationships with other associations. In addition, the Korean School Psychology Association should develop close relationships with other related disciplines (e.g., special education, child psychiatry, school social work) and government officials or policymakers in education or health fields.