Roald Anthun & Terje Manger. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Context of School Psychology
Norway has a population of 4.6 million (Statistics Norway, 2005b), of which 7.6% constitutes a heterogeneous immigrant population. The country’s geographical area is 324,220 square kilometers (about two thirds is mountainous), with a coastline of 21,925 kilometers (including mainland, long fjords, and some 50,000 islands). Norway is a constitutional monarchy, and the economy is a combination of free market activity and government control. The government controls key areas, such as the vital petroleum sector. Norway is richly endowed with natural resources: petroleum, waterfalls, fish, forests, and minerals. The country is highly dependent on its oil production and international oil prices, with oil and gas accounting for one third of exports. Only Saudi Arabia and Russia export more oil. Norway is a member of the North American Treaty Organization and, in two referenda, decided against European Union membership. The gross domestic product in 2004 was US$183 billion dollars, US$40,000 per capita.
Approximately 909,000 children under the age of 15 and 289,043 between ages 15 and 19 reside in Norway (Statistics Norway, 2005b). Seventy-five percent of all children live with both biological parents, 17% live with only their mother, 3% live with only their father, 4% live with their mother and stepfather, and 1% live with their father and stepmother. Preschool or kindergarten programs are available for children ages 1 through 5. Compulsory education consists of the primary stage, which covers Grades 1 through 7 (ages 6-12), and the lower secondary stage, Grades 8 through 10 (ages 13-16). Grades 5 through 7 (ages 10-12) are sometimes called the intermediate stage. Classes are organized according to age and not according to subject or level of competence.
Each school class typically remains together as a unit from the 1st through the 7th grade and, in many cases, to the 10th grade. Norway’s population is geographically scattered, with numerous small school units in remote and sparsely populated areas. The country has about 1,000 primary schools that do not have separate classes for each age-group, owing to the small number of students. At the lower secondary stage, most schools are larger, with two or three parallel classes at each grade. Forty-seven percent of the compulsory schools have fewer than 300 students (Statistics Norway, 2005a).
All young people between the ages of 16 and 19 who have completed the 10-year compulsory school or its equivalent have a statutory right to a 3-year, full-time, upper secondary education. This education is intended to provide students with university entrance qualifications, vocational competence, or documented partial competence. Students and trainees who wish to obtain university entrance qualifications in addition to vocational competence may take additional courses after completion of technical or vocational training. The county is responsible for providing education, jobs, or vocational courses for young people who have the right to education but who are currently not in the schools and are not employed.
In 2003, 69% (205,172) of children between the ages of 1 and 5 and 85% of those between the ages of 3 and 5 attended preschools (Statistics Norway, 2004a). In 2004, 618,000 students attended the country’s 3,189 primary and lower secondary schools (Statistics Norway, 2005a). In the same school year, 173,949 students attended the 474 upper secondary schools. Nearly 100% of the students completed compulsory education. Seventy-six percent of those who attended upper secondary schools in 1998 had finished within a 5-year period (Statistics Norway, 2004b).
Norway is divided into 19 counties and 435 municipalities (i.e., local authorities). The municipalities employ the teachers and are responsible for building and running preschools, primary schools, and lower secondary schools. Sixty percent of children attend public and 40% attend private preschools (Statistics Norway, 2004a). Only 1.6% of the student population attends private primary or lower secondary schools (Statistics Norway, 2001). The counties are responsible for upper secondary education. Five percent of the total student population attends private upper secondary schools (Statistics Norway, 2004b). The State, through its Ministry of Education and Research, is responsible for all education, including university and other higher education. The average class size in the public primary and lower secondary schools is 20.1 students (Statistics Norway, 2001), but many classes are smaller in rural municipalities. In upper secondary schools, the normal class size is between 25 and 30 students for general theoretical education and somewhat smaller for vocational training.
The Norwegian Education Act stipulates, “All students have the right to be taught according to their abilities and conditions.” This principle applies equally to children with special educational needs and children with special abilities, be these theoretical, practical, physical, or aesthetic. The decision to provide all or part of a student’s compulsory school education in the form of specially adapted teaching is made on an individual basis, in accordance with the Norwegian Administration Act. Figures from 2002-2003 reveal that 5.5% of the students in compulsory school have special needs. The percentage of students in special settings outside the compulsory school is estimated at 0.5% of the total number of students. Students with special needs are entitled to 3 years of full-time, upper secondary education along with other students. In addition, they may be given an extra 2 years of schooling at this level. Among upper secondary school students, 2.7% are educated in accordance with the special needs provisions.
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
School psychology services first were provided through private mental health agencies, modeled on the child guidance services in the United States. These services were established by psychologists educated abroad, the most prominent of whom was Åse Gruda Skard, or “Mother Åse.” Skard traveled, worked in many schools, and lectured publicly about the cause. In 1938, the first private agency for school psychology services was established in Oslo by Charlotte Bühler, who was inspired by Piaget. In 1939, the first public agency, in Aker, was opened. The further development of these services stopped during World War II and resumed in 1946. Development of the services was theoretically separated into two branches: one that promoted child mental health and one that focused on learning disabilities. This split orientation initially caused strife among professionals and has remained significant in determining the development of Norwegian school psychology and the country’s Educational Psychological Services (Pedagogisk-psykologisk tjeneste).
Initial legislative milestones included laws that established special schools for students with general learning disabilities (1951) and later provided for them in local primary school (1955). Only larger municipalities established Educational Psychological Services before this legislation. Between 1956 and 1968, the number of Educational Psychological Service agencies rose from 12 to 82. The Primary and Lower Secondary Education Act, which stipulated that Educational Psychological Services be established in all districts, came into effect in 1969. This law served as an impetus to development of Educational Psychological Services, resulting in establishing 280 service agencies by 1984. Such services for the preschool and upper secondary school students were established by similar laws in the mid 1970s.
The first project examining the future organizations of Educational Psychological Services in 12 different model agencies across the country was initiated between 1969 and 1974 by the State Council for Experiments in Education. This project demonstrated that Educational Psychological Services could provide the necessary professional assistance needed to promote integration of special education students into the local schools. As a result, the Educational Psychological Services was made responsible for expert assessments of students needing special education. Subsequently, the law pertaining to special schools was repealed (1975). During the 1990s, the national special schools were transformed into resource centers. These later became part of the Norwegian Support System for Special Education.
White papers from the national education authorities throughout the 1970s and 1980s and the 1992 Program for Strengthening Educational Psychological Services helped shape school psychology significantly. Important investigations by Kiil (1989) and Støfring (1993) and several developmental projects and programs after 1990 also were milestones in school psychology development. Among these is the development of the Professional Center for Educational Psychological Services, the transactions pertaining to the closing of special schools and establishment of the Norwegian Support System for Special Education, the Program of Northern Norway, and the Competence Development Program for Educational Psychological Service Personnel and School Leaders. The Program of Northern Norway seems to have been the most important, by modeling collaboration in several types of networks. A competence development program (referred to in Norway as the Samtak program) was intended to prepare the Educational Psychological Services to assume responsibility for severely functionally disabled students locally and to do more system intervention work. The program was only partly successful. However, the Educational Psychological Services has been included in the latest revision of the Education Act (1998), which gives school competence and organizational development in the school system top priority. This move initiated major service provision changes.
Although the direct translation of the Norwegian school psychologist title pedagogisk-psykologisk rådgiver is “pedagogical-psychological counselor,” the term educational psychologist is used much more often. In about the year 2000, when resource center positions were transferred to Educational Psychological Services, the total number of professionals employed by the 295 Educational Psychological Service agencies increased by 20%, to 2,100. According to numbers from the Norwegian Board of Education (2003), 45% of all professionals in the Educational Psychological Services were educational psychologists. Other Educational Psychological Service personnel include educational personnel at lower levels of special education (41%), social workers with different social education (6%), and miscellaneous professionals (8%). By the end of the 20th century, the male-female ratio of professionals had been reversed, going from two-thirds male to two-thirds female (Bræin, 1999). According to the Norwegian Psychological Association, in 2005, 325 members were educational psychologists, of which 72% were female (personal communication). Salaries among educational psychologists vary considerably with professional background, age, and specialization, with lower and upper limits estimated to be between US$45,000 and US$70,000 in 2005. Educational psychologists with a background in education and special education traditionally have received the highest salaries, although psychologists are now catching up. Educational psychologist salaries generally have not exceeded those for school personnel. Some municipalities have evaded this problem by redefining the contents and titles of positions.
Educational psychologists generally practice in Educational Psychological Service agencies. Some practice in the Norwegian Support System of Special Education and in higher educational institutions. Practicing educational psychologists work in both public and private schools. Some educational psychologists also travel to provide services on the Norwegian arctic islands Svalbard and at the Norwegian school on the Spanish Grand Canary Islands. About 30% of the Educational Psychological Service agencies are small entities in rural areas. Many do not have educational psychologists, only special teachers and social workers. About 23% of the agencies serving preschools and primary and lower secondary schools in 2003 were regional, versus 37% in 1996, covering about 64% of the municipalities. Educational psychologists often service both rural and urban areas and thus may be counted in both of them. The reduction in regional Educational Psychological Services reflects an ongoing shift to Educational Psychological Services combined with other public services, in 2003 covering 18.5% of the municipalities. The largest Educational Psychological Service agencies generally are situated in the biggest cities and have the largest number of educational psychologists. Twelve of 19 counties have separate Educational Psychological Services to serve upper secondary schools. In 2003, the ratio of students to educational psychologists was 1,250 to 1 and has been somewhat constant for a long period of time. On the other hand, the ratio of students to total number of professionals in the Educational Psychological Services has successively improved, with a mean ratio of 800 to 1 in 1996 and 640 to 1 in 2003.
Views as to opportunities for professional development of the educational psychologists differ. Some return to their respective specialization programs for continuing education programs, with the employer generally paying the costs. Compulsory in-service training and supervision are likely to be carried out as a part of one’s existing professional assignments. The national school authorities offer courses for educational psychologists annually, at no financial costs to the agencies or their personnel. Sometimes the national school authorities arrange extensive educational projects or long-term programs. Individual professionals also may have the cost of external courses they choose to attend paid by the agency. Because the agencies have a high degree of administrative autonomy, they may hire other professionals to give courses, produce their own in-house educational programs, give each other supervision, or provide collaborative consultation in teams. Inexperienced educational psychologists have the right to 160 hours of supervision by colleagues.
Educational Psychological Service personnel generally view their high workload as the main limitation to professional development. Educational Psychological Services is usually considered by the school community at large to have a high turnover rate. About half of Educational Psychological Service personnel had 5 or more years of Educational Psychological Service experience, and 23% had only 1 year or less of such experience (Stubbe, 1994; Østrem, 1998). Furthermore, 30% had moved on to another Educational Psychological Service agency, and 10% had switched agency twice. Professionals who leave their service agency generally also leave Educational Psychological Services. In spite of the high turnover rate, vacancy is estimated to be continually falling, constituting 9% in 2001. The main reasons for educational psychologists to leave their jobs were low salary, high workload, and low professional challenges (Stubbe, 1994). In particular, many of the isolated educational psychologists in small rural agencies suffer from professional loneliness combined with extensive responsibility.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
The Division of School Psychology is a branch within the Norwegian Psychological Association. With nearly 4,000 members, the Norwegian Psychological Association represents approximately 90% of all psychologists licensed to practice in Norway (http://www.psykol.no). The organization is responsible for negotiating members’ salaries and safeguarding working conditions and is affiliated with the joint Norwegian labor coalition for professional academic associations (Akademikerne), the European Federation of Professional Psychology Associations, the International Union of Psychological Sciences, and the Committee of Nordic Psychological Associations. The Union of Education Norway, which is a branch of the Confederation of Higher Education Unions, Norway, represents, among others, 1,400 members who hold master’s degrees in education.
Norway has no specific degree programs in school psychology. Anyone qualified as a psychologist, with an education from Norway or abroad, may work as an educational psychologist. Psychologists hold about 50% of the educational psychologist positions and are allowed to use their general professional title “psychologist.” In addition, several master’s-level programs in education and psychology may lead to qualification for an educational psychologist position. Psychologists are protected by the Health Personnel Act, and an application form for authorization and a license must be sent to the Norwegian Registration Authority for Health Personnel.
Educational Psychological Services activities in Norway are regulated by various acts of legislation. The key law is the Education Act (1998). Since the repeal of the Special School Act (1975), special education in Norway also has been regulated by the Education Act and associated national guidelines and regulations. Several other acts, such as acts regarding children, day care institutions, welfare services, municipality health services, social services, national insurance, public administration, and the freedom of information, also are important (Professional Center for the Educational Psychological Services, 2001).
The monthly peer-reviewed Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening (Journal of the Norwegian Psychological Association) is intended to advance knowledge of the science and practice of Psychology. The independent professional Division for Psychologists in School (Forum for Psykologer i Skoleri), which is affiliated with the Norwegian Psychological Association and with the International School Psychology Association, is responsible for the journal Skolepsykologi (School Psychology). This journal promotes the knowledge and practice base of school psychology. In addition, the monthly journal Spesialpedagogikk (Special Education), published by the Union of Education Norway, contributes literature on students with special needs.
Preparation of School Psychologists
The pertinent degrees offered in Norway are in professional psychology, education at the master’s level, and psychology at the master’s level. Annually, 240 students enter into one of four degree programs in psychology (at four of the five Norwegian universities). Approximately 200 students graduate each year. The reasons for the high graduation rate are primarily that the students admitted are stringently selected and the psychology programs are tightly structured.
The structure of the programs in education that qualify a psychologist is consistent with standards for the Norwegian Candidate (Candidatus Psychologiae) degree, which are set by the university programs and the Norwegian Psychological Association. In order to be admitted to the psychology programs, the student must have completed an introductory sequence of psychology courses, which requires one and a half semesters of full-time study in psychology. Admittance to the psychology program is based on a competitive grade point average from the introductory sequence.
The psychology programs are full-time, campus-based studies. They adhere to a scientist-practitioner model. This model emphasizes that the topics learned should be supportable empirically and theoretically and that they should be derived from a body of literature of high international standards. At most of the universities, the first 2½ years are reserved for topics in psychological science (e.g., social, cognitive, biological, developmental, and personality) and research methods. The last 2½ years offer practice-oriented education and supervised practice in various fields of applied psychology (e.g., clinical, work and organizational, neuroscience, educational, and psychosocial). All programs focus on children, adolescents, and adults. Interpersonal skills, assessment services, and knowledge of legal and ethical issues are emphasized. Students submit several research papers throughout the program and a thesis at the end. All universities have mandatory practice during the last 2½ years. In addition, the University of Bergen has a compulsory 20 days of practice in Educational Psychological Services, supervised by a trained psychologist.
The psychology degree is generic. Thus, it offers few opportunities to acquire specialized education and training within a university program. Since 1959, the Norwegian Psychological Association has been responsible for specialization programs. These programs include at least 5 years of practice, supervision, courses, and the submission of a written paper in order to qualify as a specialist in the various fields of applied psychology. School psychology is one of eight areas that can be selected within the clinical psychology program.
All five universities and some colleges of education offer programs in education at the master’s level, with specialization in such areas as counseling, special needs education, observation, and testing. The specialization is a limited part of more general programs in education. Thus, these programs are not comparable to programs in educational psychology at universities in some other countries. Furthermore, master’s students acquire knowledge of scientific theory and research methodology, as well as training in the use of statistics and data analysis. The writing of a thesis is an integral part of the program. For example, students at the University of Oslo who specialize in educational psychological counseling must complete a supervised 10-week internship, a part of which may be served in the Educational Psychological Services, at a resource center for special needs education, or at another related organization. The University of Trondheim has, for a long time, offered a program leading to the master’s degree in psychology, and other Norwegian universities are now offering such programs. There are several options for specialization in this master’s program, and some specialization will qualify students for a position as an educational psychologist. The number of students who finish a master of education or a master of psychology program leading to a position as an educational psychologist is unknown.
In March 2005, a proposal for the establishment of a system of standards for the education and training of professional psychologists in Europe by means of a European Diploma in Psychology was circulated. The proposal was developed by a team of psychologists, also Norwegian, who represent a number of professional associations and universities. It is expected that future reform in the preparation of psychologists in Norway will be in line either with the proposal or with future versions of the document.
Doctoral programs in psychology are offered at four of the five Norwegian universities. Preparation involves 3 years of coursework, supervision, and a dissertation. Students who have mandatory teaching duties during the 3 years will be offered an extra year to finish their thesis. Similarly, all five universities offer a doctoral program in education for selected students who have finished their master’s programs in education.
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
From its inception, Educational Psychological Services has been the site of tension between separate interest groups: those interested in providing mental health services versus those interested in providing each special needs student with an individual education program. These aims reflect conflicting motivations, including the need to create sufficient numbers of professionally competent and independent Educational Psychological Service personnel while making a modest investment in their preparation compared with the great needs for intervention in the school system and families. Thus, the basic law gives Educational Psychological Services extended intervention authority and few rules and regulations for accomplishing its objectives.
Educational Psychological Services is defined as a counseling service and the backbone of the special education system (Professional Center for the Educational Psychological Services, 2001). The primary users are children and young people ages 3 through 19, together with adults needing special education. There are between 80,000 and 90,000 users per year (Norwegian Board of Education, 2003). The present Education Act has no specific expertise requirements for Educational Psychological Service personnel. Thus, the expertise needed to provide services must be determined on the basis of current caseloads and services to be provided. The Handbook for the Educational Psychological Services (Professional Center for the Educational Psychological Services, 2001, p. 23) points out that the main objectives according to the law are “expert assessment where the law demands it,” “competence development for personnel and parents,” “organizational development in schools and kindergartens,” and “direct help” to primary users.
Between 1976 and 1996, changes in service have been considerable, with an activity increase of about 400%, with services provided basically by the same personnel resources (Bræin, 1999). More than 30% of the activities carried out in the 1990s were localized in schools and preschools, and more than 60% in the Educational Psychological Service agencies (Anthun, 1998; Bræin, 1999). Educational Psychological Services displayed less leadership and interdisciplinary functioning than expected, worked slowly and more indirectly through more help from parents and teachers, and provided more services to older students, with fewer student contacts and less collaboration with other public services.
According to the 2003 Norwegian Board of Education report, professionals in Educational Psychological Services would prefer to give more priority to promote competence and organizational development in schools. They also would prefer to provide more consultation to parents, kindergartens, and schools, and work less with individual assessment or treatment and expert reports. The activities and services delivered have not changed appreciably in recent years, despite the requirements of the 1998 law.
Although educational psychologists’ particular roles are not defined satisfactorily, there is a clear implicit understanding of tasks that they need to perform. Psychologists often believe their work is too narrow or improper and does not match their particular expertise. The highly independent role of the Educational Psychological Service personnel, including no compulsory supervision and a heavy workload, are conditions that lead to much service variation both within and between districts. However, the basic casework process is the same.
Intervention and Consultation Services
Parents and authorized school personnel in principle are free to refer any student problem to Educational Psychological Services. Some Educational Psychological Services and schools have agreed on specific referral procedures in order to improve service quality. At present, Educational Psychological Services generally limit their services to problems in preschools, schools, and those associated with schoolwork at home. The next step in the process involves assigning the casework to one professional, who gathers information and counsels the parties at the same time, if possible. The kind of intervention and consultation chosen depends on the individual case and often will be directed to the school or home environment rather than to the student. The most recent national count of problem cases included sensory, 5.4%; motor skills, 3.6%; speech/communication, 8.1%; learning disability, 41.2%; socioemotional/behavior, 24.3%; mental retardation, 15.0%; and others 2.4% (Anthun, 2002).
Considerable emphasis has been put on addressing the needs of individuals as early as possible in order to provide direct counseling and treatment for them. As much as 40% to 50% of all referrals to an agency may come from preschools. There are considerable differences in services at different age levels. Psychological counseling for students is more common at the upper secondary school level. Some Educational Psychological Service units at this level have been merged with another public service that works with students who fail or quit school (recently about 20%) and helps them get back into school, a job, or vocational courses.
Recently, such programs as Parent Management Training and Multisystemic Therapy have been undertaken by Educational Psychological Services and collaborating systems. The Marte Meo intervention method (Aarts, 2000) also has been applied often by Educational Psychological Services. Nearly one third of all Educational Psychological Service casework activity in the mid 1990s involved consultation with other professionals, such as colleagues (about 4%), school personnel (20%), or professionals outside the school (more than 7%); about 8% included parents in the consultation (Anthun, 1998; Bræin, 1999). Consultation methods usually are applied eclectically. Professionals also seem to prefer collaborative consultation.
Testing and Assessment Models and Methods
A common impression, that Educational Psychological Services activities consist primarily of assessment and testing, has been shown to be a myth (Anthun, 1998; Bræin, 1999). Testing represented not more than 11% to 13% of the activities of all professionals, with the majority being ability testing; personality tests also are used somewhat commonly, especially the screening of clients for disorders of psychological health problems. Change to more dynamic ability and achievement testing has been attempted.
By far the most common tests used by educational psychologists are Wechsler tests of intelligence. The Leiter International Performance Scale and the Raven Progressive Matrices also are used commonly. Less frequent are the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test and scales by McCarthy, Goodenough, and Frostig, as well as the Children’s Apperception Test and Thematic Apperception Test. The Rorschach rarely is used. Tests used by educational psychologists screening for psychological and social problems include the Child Behavior Checklist, the Personality Inventory for Children, and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities and Aston Index are used commonly by Educational Psychological Service personnel. Few tests are developed in Scandinavian countries, and even fewer have Scandinavian norms. A Norwegian test of attention/concentration/behavior (DATKON) is under development, and several Norwegian achievement tests are widely used.
Systemic and Developmental Activities
Since the 1970s, attempts to promote school organizational development have been part of the service repertoire. The Norwegian Education Act (1998) attempts to change special education organization in accord with the ongoing general educational system reforms. Educational Psychological Services has had limited success in making general changes in school system structure and function. Positive results take the form of supplements, including organizing guidance and language groups and promoting and supporting special teaching resource teams and meetings. These teams parallel the Intervention Assistance Programs in the United States (Ross, 1995) and have, in both nations, shown considerable success in the ability of schools to handle student cases and to reduce referral rates to the Educational Psychological Services (Anthun & Manger, in press).
Since 1970, toy guidance and toy lending have been among the standard services of Educational Psychological Services; they now are decreasing. Some agencies provide family therapy, and some collaborate with public health services. Programs developed by Olweus (1993) or Roland (1999) are widely used to prevent bullying and to create safer school environments. Educational psychologists take part regularly as supervisors or consultants, or apply the programs in their own individual cases. In the network linked to the Program of Northern Norway, some agencies were granted a special status to work directly with specialist services and professional development in a selected area. As an example, one agency has expanded its network to several universities and professionals abroad.
Kiil (1989) divided educational psychologist activities into three categories: direct work with individuals or groups, indirect work with individuals or groups, and system-changing work. He described professional development for educational psychologists using the same categories, indicating that responsibility for changing the school system was left to the one-third most experienced educational psychologists. Kiil found consultation concerning school organization development to be used commonly in the 1980s. During the 1990s, various projects and action research were implemented based on a central authority initiative.
Other Activities
Educational Psychological Services has been expected to be, and has been, a particularly independently managed municipal service. However, Educational Psychological Services is expected to engage itself in the municipal planning process and to make its own annual plan. One common routine is that the agencies evaluate their work and service delivery once or twice a year, often relying on consumers’ evaluations. National authorities recently have issued an instrument to assist local Educational Psychological Service agencies in conducting evaluations.
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
School psychology practice naturally is influenced by national legislation. Changes in the education system involve several paradigm shifts that have influenced the models of educational psychological services and related work. The most important is a shift from a medical or an individualistic model to a systemic model. Educational Psychological Services has had limited success in making a transition to more systemic models and in supporting changes in school system structures. The stability of school cultures and the Educational Psychological Services’ lack of competence in system intervention work are most likely the main reasons for this limited success (Kiil, 1989; Stubbe, 1994).
The democratically oriented principle of inclusion has become the dominant paradigm for the development of the school. An important practical dimension derived from this idea is the principle of individual adaptation within a common classroom, curriculum, and teaching. However, within this context of an inclusive, democratic, and participatory ideal, there remains a school system that is characterized by segregation and compensation (e.g., Haug, 2000). Thus, a need for Educational Psychological Services and schools to cooperate in the development of more inclusive methods than the present school system offers is critical. Educational psychologists must be clear about what they can offer, and they must add practical value to schools and classrooms. They need to understand the classroom routines and dynamics and to provide recommendations that will meet the various and changing needs of all students. In line with these major challenges, the need for research on systemic work in the school and inclusive classroom methods is urgent.
Finally, the great variation in agency sizes and districts, personnel backgrounds, experiences, and different management models has resulted in a comparable variation in service delivery and quality. The shortage of educational psychologists in some areas of the country and the high employment turnover of professionals, who are being replaced by educational psychologists with minimal experience, represent challenges to service quality. Higher salaries and better working conditions may improve service quality. Both are issues that should be researched.