Andrew A Mogaji. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Context of School Psychology
Nigeria is the most populous nation in the continent of Africa south of the Sahara, with an estimated population of 130 million. Its landmass is 923,768 square kilometers, and its climate is tropical. It was a British colony until its independence on October 1, 1960. Nigeria is bordered on the east by Cameroun Republic, on the west by Benin Republic, on the north by Niger Republic, and on the south by the Atlantic Ocean. The country is culturally diverse in such features as language, religion, food, marriage systems, trading systems, and ethnic tribes. The Hausa/Fulanis dominate the north, the Igbos dominate the southeast, and the Yorubas dominate the southwest. In 2004, the gross domestic product was US$125.7 billion, about US$1,000 per capita. Nigeria is oil-rich, which accounts for much of the national budget. However, the country has suffered economically as a result of political instability, corruption, inadequate infrastructure, and poor macroeconomic management. The administration has been restructured and revitalized since 2000. For instance, in 2003, the government initiated the deregulation of fuel prices and the privatization of the country’s four oil refineries and instituted the National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy, a domestically designed and run program modeled on the International Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility for fiscal and monetary management. These initiatives have resulted in growth of the gross domestic product. Between 1976 and 1980, Nigeria witnessed unprecedented growth at all levels of education: primary, secondary, and tertiary (Fafunwa, 2002). The launching of the Universal Primary Education Program by the federal government in 1976 led to rapid growth in pupil enrollment, from 6 million during the 1975-1976 school year to 8.7 million during 1976-1977 and 12.5 million during the 1979-1980 school year (Fafunwa, 2002). Between 1976 and 1978, the federal government made substantial grants available to the then 19 states in terms of capital and recurrent expenditures to help promote the success of this education program. During this period, education grants were poorly managed by some states that thought the grants constituted their own share of profits from the oil boom, resulting in the grant monies being diverted to noneducational projects.
The federal government subsequently reduced grants to the states when oil prices fell. Hence, state and local governments, as well as parents, were asked to assist in financing the Universal Primary Education Program. In 1980, revenue allocations were reduced by the federal government from 71% to 55%, and the shares of state and local governments were correspondingly increased. In addition, the federal government stopped funding primary education and passed this responsibility on to state and local governments. State and local governments began to default in payments of primary school teachers’ salaries and allowances.
The reduction of grants led to gross shortages of almost everything. Most school buildings were dilapidated; some states owed teachers’ salaries for more than 6 months; school buildings were not maintained; children read under trees; teaching aids, books, and furniture were lacking; and teachers were laid off to save costs. Primary education had collapsed in most parts of the country. The glaringly poor quality unavoidably affected the rest of the entire educational system. In response to the poor state of education, four commissions were set up to examine the problems of primary education. Between 1980 and 1988, government funds for financing primary education were derived from two sources, namely the local (10%) and state (35%) governments, which were derived from the federation account. In 1984, these conditions led to the federal government establishing the Fafunwa study group on the funding of education. The study group visited all 19 states of the federation and Abuja, the federal capital territory, and took written and oral evidence from individuals, groups, organizations, and state governments.
The study group made the following recommendations to the government. Primary education should be within the reach of every Nigerian child irrespective of the economic status of his or her parents. Salaries and allowances of primary school staff should be taken directly from federation sources. A compensatory sum should be made available for educationally disadvantaged states from federation sources. State governments should provide teachers with instructional materials. Local governments should provide furniture and see to the maintenance of the school buildings. They should also provide housing for teachers in rural areas and mobilize efforts for this purpose. Parents should assume the financial costs of textbooks, exercise books, writing materials, school uniforms, and midday meals for their children. State governments should aid parents who are unable to assume these costs.
Four years after the recommendations were made, the federal government agreed to pay 65% of the annual salaries of teaching and nonteaching staff at the primary school level; state governments would contribute 20%, and the local governments would contribute 15%. This led to the establishment of the National Primary Education Commission and the National Primary Education Fund, which led to money being deducted directly from the federal government’s share of the federation account. The National Primary Education Commission was empowered to (a) prescribe the minimum standards of primary education throughout the country, (b) inquire into and advise the federal government on the funding of primary education in Nigeria, (c) receive the Nigerian National Primary Education Fund from the federal government and allocate the funds to the appropriate body designated by each state and the federal capital territory, and (d) collate periodic master plans for a balanced and coordinated development of primary education in Nigeria. The National Primary Education Fund recommended that class size be increased, on average, to 35 and 40 students per teacher at primary and secondary schools, respectively (Fafunwa, 2002; Federal Government of Nigeria, 2004). Secondary education enrollment increased from 771,366 in 1975-1976 to 3,608,215 in 1983-1984 (i.e., a 407% increase). This enrollment increase was consistent with the national education policy that secondary education should provide an increasing number of former primary school students with an opportunity for education of a higher quality, irrespective of their sex and social, religious, and ethnic backgrounds.
In 1977, the National Board for Technical Education was established to provide guidelines for the growth and development of technical and vocational education. The Board pioneered the idea of establishing minimum academic standards and established accreditation panels for this purpose. By 1990, there were 10 federal and 19 state polytechnic institutions, with a combined student enrollment of 60,000. With the Board’s introduction of the minimum academic standards and entry requirements, all students pursuing the national diploma and higher national diploma-level courses achieved comparable levels of technical competence.
The introduction of the Universal Primary Education Program in 1976 was swiftly followed by the Universal University Education Program in 1978, which provided free university tuition. However, students continued to be responsible for paying for their lodging, meals, and books. Universities also witnessed unprecedented growth between 1970 and 1982. There were 6 universities in 1970; 13 in 1975; 21 in 1982; 22 federal universities, 9 state universities, and 6 colleges of education in 1990; and 24 federal universities, 19 state universities, 14 colleges of education, and two federal polytechnics with degree-awarding status in 2004. The 1979 constitution sanctioned private universities. In 2004, there were six private universities. In 2005, the federal government approved establishing more private universities.
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
Educational psychology and school psychology are two areas of applied psychology. School psychology focuses on applications of psychological methods, theory, and research in schools. On the other hand, educational psychology focuses on applications of psychological principles in all settings devoted to education; it is not restricted to the school environments. Hence, both educational and school psychology can be defined as applied areas of psychology that focus on the development, learning, motivation, instruction, and assessment of issues related to the teaching-learning process.
The content of educational psychology (e.g., development, learning, motivation, instruction) often forms the foundation for the preparation of school psychologists. Educational psychology generally is well taught in Nigerian universities and colleges of education. It was popular in all universities until the federal government enacted a policy that made guidance and counseling compulsory courses that had to be taught in tertiary institutions (e.g., colleges of education, polytechnics, and universities) and deemed that guidance and counseling services should be provided at all levels of education. The same policy also mandated continuous assessment in schools and stipulated that emphasis should be placed on promoting student development and the use of tools to assess students in three domains: cognitive (i.e., knowledge of particular subjects), affective (i.e., interest and positive attitudes toward the subjects), and psychomotor (i.e., acquisition of practical skills and display of industry).
Persons who have at least a master’s degree in psychology are regarded as professional psychologists. Persons who specialize in psychology are regarded as practitioners in that area. No matter their area of specialization, university professors are assumed to be able to perform the roles of educational or school psychologists. For example, the author of this chapter is a personnel/organizational psychologist who also performs the role of a school psychologist because he is a university lecturer. He also does research with children, adolescents, and adults. Professional psychologists make use of psychological tests in their counseling and consultancy services.
Educational research generally involves finding solutions to educational problems and issues (e.g., the teaching-learning process in every school subject, evaluation of outcomes, administration and financial resources at every educational level; Obe, 2001). Some of these problems are evident in the lack of motivation on the part of students and teachers, cheating on examinations and mass failure among students, unwanted pregnancies among adolescent girls, and complaints that females are marginalized.
Guidance counselors began to focus on some of these problems with a view to prevention. Vocational guidance, an important service of guidance counselors, has been elusive because the government has failed to provide employment for most people. The industries and organizations that were supposed to provide employment are retrenching, and in some cases, when vacancies exist, they use favoritism and nepotism in the recruitment process. In such cases, recruitment and selection processes often lack objectivity.
These and other conditions have contributed to the negative attitudes of students toward the various subjects and attending class. Truancy has become prevalent. There have been instances of students drinking alcohol in beer parlors when they should have been in class. When such students did attend lectures, they challenged the authority of their teachers and in some cases threatened to beat them. Some students believe that, no matter what they do, teachers will fail them. When students fail, they commonly say the teacher failed them.
Because of these problems, the Nigerian Association of Educational Psychologists was formed. It is an association of persons interested in proffering solutions to the problems associated with the teaching-learning process. Members of this association agreed to work together with members of the Counseling Association of Nigeria.
There are very few publications on school psychology in Nigeria. The history and current status of school psychology services in Nigeria have been discussed by Jimoh (1986), Ezeilo (1989, 1992), and Mogaji (2003) from an impressionistic perspective (Mpofu, Peltzer, Shumba, Serpell, & Mogaji, 2005). In fact, all of these authors agreed that surveys on the status of school psychology in sub-Saharan Africa are scarce. The terms educational psychology and school psychology are used synonymously in many African countries, particularly in those with a British heritage (e.g., Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Zambia). Moreover, survey data suggest that school psychology services have the potential to make a difference in the quality of life and education of children in the region.
School psychology services grew from the widespread provision of general education services through the elementary primary school education and the availability of special education services. The availability of special education services in an African country is a reliable proxy indicator for the existence of, or potential for, school psychology in that country. School psychology services in developing countries tend to be narrowly defined to refer to psycho-educational support for school students with disabilities (Mpofu et al., 2005).
Moreover, Mpofu and his associates found that school psychology services were initially available to children of a middle-class background in metropolitan centers and less so to children in rural areas or those with special educational needs. Children with emotional-behavioral disabilities typically receive help from social workers, because they are basically perceived by the national governments as presenting primarily with social rather than educational needs.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
School psychology is a recognized profession in Nigeria (Mogaji, 2003), represented by the Nigerian Psychological Association, Nigerian Association of Educational Psychologists, Counseling Association of Nigeria, and the National Council for Exceptional Children. Neither the title nor the practice of school psychology is regulated. Other providers of school psychology services include clinical psychologists, school guidance teachers, special education teachers, and speech therapists/teachers.
Preparation of School Psychologists
In 1977, a national policy on education was established to spell out the philosophy and objectives that underlie the government’s investment in education. With this educational policy, the federal government introduced the 6-3-3-4 system of education, meaning that students are encouraged to spend 6 years in the primary school, 3 years in the junior secondary, 3 years in the senior secondary, and 4 years in a university.
Students take entrance examinations that comprise verbal and quantitative aptitude tests, including tests of general reasoning, to gain admission into secondary schools. The West African Examination Council is the examining body that evaluates the degree of knowledge students have acquired in subjects of their choice. The Joint Admission and Matriculation Board is the examining body charged with the placement of students into the universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education. The testing unit of the Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for placing students with special needs education (e.g., those with speech impediments, vocational needs, or physical impairments) into classes according to their needs.
Some tests have been developed to measure students’ academic aptitudes. For example, Obe’s scholastic aptitude test (1980) is used to assess students’ verbal and numerical aptitudes. The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (1974) are used to measure the creative talents of pupils in Nigeria. The Student Styles Questionnaire developed by Oakland, Glutting, and Horton (1996) is used to measure temperament and learning styles among Nigerian children. Even though school psychology is recognized as a specialty of psychology, misconceptions exist as to how it and educational psychology differ. Educational psychology is offered as a specialist course after one has obtained his or her first university degree. It is an area of specialization at the master’s level like any other subfield of psychology that is offered in the department of psychology by the faculty of social sciences. The master’s degree is a 12-month intensive program of academic work, including a 3-month internship experience or teaching practice under the supervision of an experienced professional person. Educational psychology is made up of four subfields, namely, guidance and counseling; measurement and evaluation; learning; and human growth and development. Educational psychologists strive to have students attend classes regularly and attend lectures. Moreover, they strive to identify students’ problems with a view to proffering likely solutions.
Therefore, the focus of educational psychologists should be to carry out educational research. According to Barnes (1960) and other authors, educational researches may be classified in many different ways, such as by the field/discipline: educational psychology, curriculum studies, guidance and counseling, physical and health education, educational administration and planning, adult education, and sociology of education.
School psychology in countries surveyed by Mpofu et al. (2005) was loosely defined to refer to school guidance counseling (e.g., Botswana, Nigeria, Zambia), special education (e.g., Botswana, Nigeria), and professionals with psychology qualifications who worked in schools (e.g., Nigeria). In Nigeria, Malawi, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, school psychologists were found to be people with qualifications in educational psychology. School psychology (also called educational psychology) is an emerging profession in sub-Saharan Africa. It is generally unknown by ordinary citizens of countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Developmentally, school psychology services are evolving from the relatively more established services in special needs education and school guidance and counseling (Mpofu et al., 2005). Hence, those that can be regarded as school psychologists in Nigeria are numerous.
Due to the fact that school psychology practices in sub-Saharan Africa are in their infancy, there is variation in the use of the title “school psychologist” and in the practice of school psychology. In a majority of countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria, professionals with school guidance and counseling or special education qualifications are regarded as school psychologists. The roles and functions of school psychologists vary by country. Countries with relatively stronger school guidance and counseling programs consider preventive health education and careers counseling a core function of school psychologists. Some countries consider special educational placement a core function.
School psychologists in 8 of the 12 African countries surveyed by Mpofu, Zindi, Oakland, and Peresuh (1997) worked as lecturers at universities or were with government social service agencies. School psychologists in 7 of the 12 countries had either undergraduate or graduate qualifications but no teaching experience. Mpofu et al. (2005) also reported that school guidance counselors led the list of allied service providers across the six countries, followed by special education teachers, clinical psychologists, and regular class teachers.
For a person to qualify as a clinical psychologist, he or she must possess at least a master’s degree in clinical psychology (an area of specialization in psychology). This can be obtained after the 4-year bachelor’s degree in general psychology. For a person to become a regular class teacher, he or she must possess either a degree in any teaching subject after a 4-year program at the university or at least a national certificate in education after a 3-year program at the college of education. The person can become a school guidance counselor if he or she specializes in guidance and counseling at any of the educational levels described above. Special education schools, such as the Federal College of Education (Special) in Oyo, and special education departments at the Universities of Ibadan and Jos were established by the federal government to train and prepare middle-level managers of special needs education services.
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
School psychologists provide consultative services in reference to academic and social behaviors as well as guidance and counseling (Mogaji, 2003). Special education assessment and placement is a primary job function for school psychologists. Career counseling is their secondary function. Their basic training and on-the-job training were perceived to be thorough (Mpofu et al, 2005). With the introduction of the 6-3-3-4 system of education, measurement and evaluation became an integral part of the teaching-learning process in Nigeria. Measurement and evaluation are used for the identification and placement of students into various classes.
Teacher-made curriculum-based achievement tests are constructed by teachers to measure learning outcomes of students in their classrooms. Nationally normed standardized achievement tests are available. Examples of these tests are those conducted by the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (e.g., the Universities’ Matriculation Examination) and the West African Examination Council (Junior/Senior Secondary School Certificate Examinations).
The Differential Aptitude Test is used to assist students in making vocational and educational decisions. Subtests include verbal reasoning, numerical ability, abstract reasoning, spatial reasoning, mechanical reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, spelling, and sentence construction.
The Test Development and Research Unit, an arm of the West African Examination Council, has a series of tests that are used for selection into trade centers, teacher-training colleges, schools of nursing, civil aviation, federal training centers, secondary schools, common entrance, and employment and promotion in civil service, commercial, and industrial organizations. The Test Development and Research Unit also administers aptitude tests to Nigerian students on behalf of the Educational Testing Service (Obe, 1980).
The Vocational Interest Inventory (Bakare, 1977) is designed to indicate the type of work in which persons are interested and that they will enjoy. The Hare Self-Esteem Scale (Hare, 1985) assesses the influences of peer groups, school, and home on the self-esteem of school-age children. The Student Styles Questionnaire (Oakland et al., 1996) was used by Oakland, Mogaji, and Dempsey (in press) to measure the preferences of four bipolar traits—extroversion or introversion, practical or imaginative, thinking or feeling, and organized or flexible temperament styles—among Nigerian children.
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
School psychology has tremendous potential yet also faces significant challenges. For example, poorly achieving students tend to lack motivation and could benefit from school psychology services (Mogaji, 2003). The growth of school psychology has been hindered by the lack of support by the federal government (Awanbor, 1995; Jimoh, 1986; Olowu, 1991). Its growth would be possible if a national policy of education that advocated the education of all children, regardless of disability, could be turned into law and enforced so that many children with disabilities could attend school. For example, special education legislation would reinvigorate school psychology services by empowering a significant majority of potential consumers of school psychology services, namely, children with disabilities and their families (Eleweke, 1999).
A lack of resources in test use, development, and research constitutes a major obstacle to a greater involvement of school psychologists in Africa, including Nigeria (Mpofu et al., 2005). Mpofu and his associates found that participants in their survey perceived a lot of potential for school psychology to develop in their countries with support by national governments, enhanced public awareness, more trained school psychologists, and greater investment in research on test use and development. Parental interests in meeting the special education needs of children were not sufficiently strong to warrant school psychology services. Most believe parents are superstitious and do not understand the actual causes of learning or behavioral problems in their children, resulting in their lack of involvement. In addition, parents are either unaware or ignorant of school psychology services. Mothers, not fathers, generally were more involved in attempting to meet the special needs of their children. Their use of community-based services for special educational needs was rare.
School psychology practices in the area of assessment and diagnosis should be adapted to local needs (e.g., sociocultural background of the consumers), and school psychologists should not disengage from the communities that they purport to serve. The apparent contextual disengagement from their practices by school psychologists could be a reflection of the values divide that exists between the goals and processes of education in African communities and the institution of schooling from Africa’s Western European heritage. For example, cooperative learning and achievement with and for a group is highly valued by most communities in Africa but undervalued by the schools (Nsamenang, 1993). Schools in Africa are modeled after those of the West and place an emphasis on individual performance and achievement on tasks. School psychology practices are based on the same value system as the schools they work in and so seek to promote individual performance and achievement rather than cooperative learning (as in peer teaching and learning).
The contextual disengagement of school psychologists suggests that the professional preparation they received may have been deficient in cultural responsiveness (Jimoh, 1986). It may also be indicative of a lower stage of development in the indigenization of psychology in those countries (Mpofu et al., 2005).
A declining national economy resulting from mismanagement and the fall of oil prices limited the need for vocational guidance, a service provided by some school psychologists. School psychology was also hindered by inconsistencies in the standards of training across colleges, regions, and disability advocacy groups, as well as from poor remuneration (Awanbor, 1995; Ezeilo, 1989, 1992; Mogaji, 2003).