Gražina Gintiliene. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Context of School Psychology
Lithuania, a European country on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, is bordered by Latvia on the north, Belarus on the east and south, Russia on the west, Poland on the south, and 100 kilometers of Baltic Sea coastline on the west. The landmass of Lithuania is 65,200 square kilometers, and its population is over 3.5 million. The territory of Lithuania is divided into 10 counties, which consist of territories of the nine cities and 51 regional municipalities. The population is 83.5% Lithuanian, 7% Polish, 6% Russian, and 4% other. The official language is Lithuanian, and it, as the neighboring Latvian, belongs to the Baltic group of Indo-European languages.
In 1990, after a 50-year Soviet occupation, Lithuania proclaimed the restoration of its statehood, the roots of which date back to the early 13th century. In 2003, Lithuania had the fastest growing economy in Europe (“Baltic Tiger,” 2003). In 2004, the country’s gross domestic product was US$45.23 billion, 12,900 per capita, and unemployment fell from 11% in 2003 to 8% in 2005. Having such progress in its economy in 2004, Lithuania joined the European Union. Privatization of large, state-owned property is nearing completion. There remains a significant level of disparity in economic well-being between urban and rural districts. In terms of average disposable income, the rural population is 1.4 times poorer than the urban population.
Lithuania has a highly developed educational system. During the 2002-2003 academic year, 82% of learners ages 7 through 24 years were pursuing their education and training. Among 19- to 24-year-olds, 33% attended a higher education institution. In 2003, the percentage of gross domestic product allocated to education was 6% (Ministry of Education and Science, 2004). Lithuania’s first post-communist Constitution (1992) Article 41 declares that every child younger than 16 must attend school. This ensures the individual’s right to attend a state-funded, municipal, or private school and/or to move to another school of choice. A child starts first grade at 7 years old. Preschool and pre-primary education for children ages 3 to 7 years old is not compulsory. When enrolling in a state-funded or municipal school, individuals who reside within a territory are given priority. Children in some districts can choose their school according to language of instruction: Lithuanian, Polish, Russian, English, German, or French. The primary school curriculum is for Grades 1 to 4. Class sizes vary from 10 to 20 pupils in primary schools and from 20 to 30 students in the upper grades. The basic education curriculum consists of two educational content areas: one for Grades 5 to 8 and another for Grades 9 to 10. On completion of basic education, exams ascertain whether the basic level of education has been attained. Those who have attained the basic educational level then enter secondary education, which is a 2-year curriculum that focuses on profiling (e.g., humanitarian, real, technological, and artistic) and differentiation of the content of education offered by various types of schools (e.g., gymnasium, secondary, vocational, and other). Individuals who have completed secondary education take state- and/or school-level matriculation examinations. The results of state examinations are used to determine admittance to institutions of higher education (colleges, universities, and academies) throughout the country.
During the 2004-2005 school year, the total number of students at schools in general education in Lithuania was estimated at 563,063. Of these, 93% of the population graduated with basic education at age 16, and 80% of the population graduated with secondary education at age 18 (Statistics Lithuania, 2005). Special education needs pupils constitute 11% (58,837) of the general school population. At the beginning of the 2004-2005 school year, as many as 88% of pupils with special needs were taught at mainstream schools, 2% in special classes at mainstream schools, and 11% were taught at special schools or special boarding schools (Statistics Lithuania, 2005). Most children integrated into regular schools have speech and communication disabilities or specific cognitive disorders. Children with hearing impairments and mental retardation typically attend special schools.
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
The origins of school psychology in Lithuania are found in the early 1920s, when the Lithuanian Society for Psychotechnique and Vocational Guidance was established at the Experimental Psychology and Pedagogy Institute of Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas. Its goals included helping to selecting candidates for study programs, assisting young people in finding their vocation, advising on different professions and occupations, selecting the most gifted or challenged children, and advising on special schooling and education (Gucas, 1937). With the outbreak of World War II and the subsequent occupation of Lithuania, the society’s activities were halted. From 1946 until 1969, the training of professional psychologists was excluded from university programs. During this period, the specialization of psychology was available only in combination with the profession of Lithuanian language teacher. Most graduates who went into this profession followed a career in teaching or research. In 1969, Vilnius University was granted permission to train specialists in industrial and engineering psychology. This paved the way for the eventual training of specialists in educational and clinical psychology (Lape, 1999).
Organized school psychological services in Lithuania began in the early 1980s, when the Section of Pedagogical Psychology was established within the Lithuanian Psychologists’ Society. It is from this time that psychologists within the educational system began to be recognized. Spearheaded by members of this section, the first professional psychologists were employed by several Lithuanian schools open to participating in the experiment. In 1990, the Lithuanian Psychologists’ Society played an important role in establishing the School Psychological Service Center in Vilnius. This center developed the first official documents regarding the main functions, duties, responsibilities, and rights of school psychologists. Within three years of the center’s opening, three affiliates were opened: one in the city of Kaunas and one each in the regions of Prienai and Ignalina. The model for pedagogical psychological services was approved by the Ministry of Education and Science in 1995 (Valantinas, 1998).
This provided a 3-level system of service across the country. Level 1 was at the municipal level of pedagogical psychological services; Level 2 was at the specialized county level of pedagogical psychological services; and Level 3 was the Pedagogical Psychological Center. The Center had divisions around the country and worked with special needs children and adolescents at the county level. It also worked in cooperation with the municipal Pedagogical Psychological Services, using a multidisciplinary approach, to assess the special education needs of children. Within 4 years, 26 Pedagogical Psychological Services were established to serve schools and preschools at the municipal level. These covered about 50% of all municipalities (Aidukiene & Labiniene, 2003).
The 1990s saw the beginning of international cooperation among Lithuanian school psychologists. Initial efforts to introduce democratic changes to the Lithuanian educational system were summer schools for educators and psychologists, beginning in 1991, which were organized by the American Professional Partnership for Lithuanian Education society. Numerous projects with colleagues from Nordic countries have left lasting changes in Lithuanian education. Lithuanian school psychologists took an active part in the School for All program, supported by the Nordic Council of Ministers, and in the project Pedagogical Psychological Services for Democratization of Lithuanian Education, supported by the Danish Ministry of Education.
These, along with national projects, were catalysts for the rapid changes within the special education system that spurred the integration of children with special needs into mainstream schools and society. In 1999, 82% of pupils with special needs were taught in mainstream schools, compared with 66% in 1993 (Aidukiene & Labiniene, 2003; Reklyte & Gintiliene, 1993). The developing integration led to a revision of the existing model for the provision of pedagogical and psychological assistance in 2003. Accordingly, the new model for further development of the system of special pedagogical and psychological support within the country, Pedagogical Psychological Center, was reorganized into the National Center for Special Needs Education and Psychology under the Ministry of Education and Science (for more information, see the Center’s Web site, http://www.sppc.lt). The National Center for Special Needs Education and Psychology became responsible for coordinating the first and second levels of special pedagogical and psychological support, supporting the municipal pedagogical psychological services, training specialists, providing assessment materials, and supervising difficult cases.
During the past two decades, the number of psychologists working in educational settings has increased from several to 400. The term school psychologist is used in both broad and narrow senses. The broad sense refers to a professional with a master’s degree in psychology (most hold a master’s degree in educational psychology), who is recognized as a specialist in providing psychological assistance to children within the school and in school-related settings and services. The narrow sense refers to a professional psychologist who is employed directly by the school (kindergarten, primary, basic, youth, secondary, special, and vocational). The term educational psychologist is also used to refer to the professional who has completed a graduate program in educational psychology. The term school psychologist is most often used to identify professionals who work in educational settings, whereas the term educational psychologist tends to indicate those in academia. Neither term is defined in legislation. The Law on Education (2003) Article 20 states that “psychological assistance is provided and the prevention of psychological problems is undertaken by psychologists employed at psychological services, Pedagogical Psychological Services, and schools.” This law ensures that psychological assistance is available at (a) schools offering a preschool education program, (b) general education schools (except schools organized by hospitals for inpatients, schools for adult students, and training centers for adults), (c) schools providing art or sports education programs and carrying out formal education programs, (d) vocational schools, and (e) Pedagogical Psychological Services.
According to data provided by the National Center for Special Needs Education and Psychology (Specialiosios Pedagogikos ir Psichologijos Centras, 2006), during the 2004-2005 school year, 293 psychologists worked at mainstream and special schools and 22 worked in kindergarten. Another 105 psychologists were employed in 58 (of 60) municipal Pedagogical Psychological Services. In Lithuania, the average ratio is 1 psychologist to 1,420 schoolchildren. This ratio, however, is not consistent throughout the country. In Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, 1 school psychologist serves some 1,050 children, whereas in the Vilnius region, 1 school psychologist may serve as many as 1,830 children. An especially problematic situation can be observed in the Siauliai County, where the ratio of schoolchildren to school psychologists is 3,000 to 1. Kindergartens have an average of 4,000 children per psychologist. The ratio of psychologists working in rural areas compared with those in towns is 1 to 24. Women dominate the field at a ratio of 23 to 1.
The average salary of a school psychologist working in public schools is equal to a special teacher’s salary, which is slightly above the national average. The minimum salary is 250 euros (gross) per month for a school psychologist during the first four years after graduating from a master’s-degree program in psychology. The school psychologist with 15 or more years of practice and a doctoral degree in psychology may earn the maximum salary of 430 euros (gross). School psychologists’ earnings, therefore, depend on years of professional experience and qualifications.
Since 1997, the School Psychologists’ Certification Committee, under the Ministry of Education and Science, has been overseeing and conferring certification for school psychologists. The clarification of requirements for qualification in school psychology has opened new opportunities for professional development. The legislation stipulates that the time provided for school psychologists to upgrade their qualifications, and remain certified, is equal to that allowed for teachers to do likewise. Consequently, an educational institution must offer a psychologist at least 5 days of qualification improvement courses a year. The dates for qualification courses are set by the head of the educational institution. Professional development is taken into consideration when a person applies for a higher qualification category or position. A system for continuing professional development, however, is not yet in place, so updating one’s knowledge and skills often depends on a person’s own initiative and financial situation. School psychologists usually prefer seminars organized by the National Center for Special Needs Education and Psychology and by the Teachers’ Professional Development Center. Continuing education courses offered by universities are also popular among psychologists.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
During the Soviet period, the Lithuanian Psychological Society was a part of the Society of Soviet Union Psychologists, which was under the Academy of Science of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. In 1988, during the national liberation movement and 2 years before the restoration of Lithuanian independence, Lithuanian psychologists proclaimed their autonomy, and the independent Lithuanian Psychologists’ Association was established (for more information, see the Lithuanian Psychologists’ Association’s Web site, http://www.lps.vu.lt). In 1997, the Lithuanian Psychologists’ Association joined the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations. From its beginning, the Lithuanian Psychologists’ Association has been prominent in promoting the development of psychological services in Lithuania. Its goals are to coordinate, and to attend to the quality of, these services and to promote the creation of a system to raise the professional qualifications of psychologists. The Lithuanian Psychologists’ Association developed a Code of Professional Ethics for Psychologists (1996) and Regulations for the Use of Standardized Psychological Techniques (1997). These have established standards for psychological practice, including that of school psychology, in Lithuania.
Other organizations that have begun to work on behalf of schools include the Association of Directors of Pedagogical Psychological Services; the School Psychologists’ Trade Union Divisions, under the Teachers’ Trade Union; and the Methodical Council of School Psychologists, under the Municipal Education Department. The main legislation ensuring provision of psychological assistance to learners and strategies for prevention of psychological problems includes the Law on Education (new edition: 2003), the Law on Special Education (1999), and the Law on Fundamental Protection of Rights of the Child (1996). School psychology practice and psychological service within the educational system has been regulated by Ministry of Education and Science legislation, such as General Regulations for the Position of School Psychologist (2005); Description of the Requirements for the Position of School Psychologist Assistant (2005); Requirements for the Position of Psychologists Working at Municipal Pedagogical Psychological Services (2004); Description of the Procedures of the Provision of Psychological Assistance to Schoolchildren (2004); and the Procedure for Identification of Type and Degree of Disorders of Special Needs Persons and Designation of These Persons to Groups According to Special Education Needs (2002).
Requirements to be met by school psychologists are higher education, qualification (specialization) as a psychologist, at least a master’s degree in psychology, or equivalent qualification (with no less than 200 credits in psychology earned during consecutive university study). Furthermore, school psychologists must have the ability to provide psychological assistance to students encountering a variety of psychological problems or having special educational needs in cooperation with teachers, special teachers, speech therapists, social pedagogues, other specialists, and parents, guardians, or tutors.
According to recent legislation, it is not mandatory to have graduated from an educational psychology program to become certified as a school psychologist. It is possible to become a school psychologist through other psychology graduate programs. Legislation does not preclude one from taking on the position of psychologist at a school or at Psychological Pedagogical Services if one has completed a master’s-degree program in clinical psychology, health, or a related field.
The new Requirements for the School Psychologist Assistant Position (2005) allow a person with a bachelor’s degree in psychology to provide certain psychological services under the supervision of a professional psychologist. Until now, the position of an assistant school psychologist could have been filled by specialists qualified as teachers in psychology. According to data provided by the National Center for Special Needs Education and Psychology (Specialiosios Pedagogikos ir Psichologijos Centras, 2006), 11.2% ofthose currently working in school psychology are not certified as psychologists. They either do not have a master’s degree or are in the process of completing their studies.
Preparation of School Psychologists
Educational psychology master’s-degree programs have been offered at Vilnius University since 1996, at Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas since 1995, and at Klaipeda University since 2003. These programs were accredited by the Ministry of Education and Science in 2001.
Approximately 40 students graduate from these three programs each year. During their studies, students have to complete a program that requires no less than 60 credits. One credit is made up of 40 hours and includes lectures, seminars, course papers, home assignments, individual work, supervised practice, and a master’s thesis.
The training requirements for becoming a school psychologist are a minimum of 6 years in psychology or, for those who graduated before 1996, a minimum of 5 years of study in Psychology. Two-year master’s programs are available only to those who have completed a 4-year bachelor’s degree in psychology. Master’s studies in educational psychology usually are less competitive than studies in clinical or organizational psychology.
Bachelor’s-level students take courses covering core areas of knowledge in psychology including developmental, learning and cognition, educational, clinical, personality, social, experimental, biological, measurement, statistics, and research design. The holder of a bachelor’s degree in psychology learns how to apply knowledge in psychology to solve psychological problems. The bachelor’s psychology program covers a range of research techniques and theories. It includes courses on how to identify and assess questions of interest, carry out independent empirical research adhering to ethical guidelines and using a variety of data collection techniques, and interpret and relate data to different theories and communicate one’s findings. Students also learn how to study independently and to work in groups.
The educational psychology master’s-degree programs provide ample opportunities for students to relate theoretical knowledge to practical situations. The aims of the master’s program are to impart basic knowledge in psychology in educational contexts, develop professional task-solving skills important for assessment and intervention, provide training in research techniques, develop skills for analyzing statistical data, and apply research to practice.
Students develop professional values consistent with psychological ethics and receive training in professional practice. However, only Vilnius University’s master’s-degree program requires 4 months of supervised professional practice in educational settings (primary, basic, and secondary schools and Pedagogical Psychological Services). A holder of a master’s degree in psychology learns about the validity and reliability of psychological evaluation techniques and the scope of their application, and is able to gather information on difficulties encountered by students, families, and schools. Students in these master’s programs learn how to (a) contribute to the prevention and intervention programs that promote the mental health of children and adolescents; (b) choose and apply relevant intervention methods, including consulting and counseling techniques; (c) analyze the counseling and intervention process; (d) evaluate outcomes and discuss them with clients; and (e) write psychological reports.
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
Psychologists working at educational institutions provide a range of services for children, their families, and school personnel. The purpose of these services is to promote mental health and facilitate learning. Working directly in educational settings, school psychologists are familiar with the unique characteristics and current educational policies of the school system. School psychologists work with school- and municipality-based interdisciplinary teams, contributing their unique perspectives on child development and a research-based approach to problem solving. School psychologists combine different training and approaches to provide the most effective and comprehensive service to children and adolescents in schools. School psychologists support students and are able to prevent psychological problems that children face in schools and in the community.
School psychological service staff provide a range of diverse services to support students and their families when they face issues that affect students’ learning, emotional status, and behavior in class. Among the responsibilities of psychologists working at schools and in-service settings are the following activities:
Consulting. School psychologists consult with school staff and community specialists on educational environment and other factors affecting students’ learning. They consult with students, school staff, and parents regarding education and/or personal/social needs; provide information regarding community services available to students; make appropriate recommendations regarding students’ vocational needs; and inform, assist, and make recommendations to parents, guardians, tutors, teachers, and others involved with the special needs child’s education.
Assessment. School psychologists assess the child’s strengths and difficulties to evaluate developmental, emotional, behavioral, and learning problems and special educational needs. The school psychologist assesses the child’s level of maturity for schooling at the service center or school, or, in the event of severe mobility problems at home. Special education needs assessment is carried out by the Special Education Commission. It is based on a multi-team approach that includes the school psychologist. The psychologist on the team recommends specific learning skills and, if needed, psychological assistance. Assessment results are used to find the least restrictive environment that will best facilitate the children’s education, according to the programs assigned by the Special Education Commission: modified, adapted, special, or individual. The tests commonly used in the psychological assessment process are the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, third edition (for intellectual abilities); Strengths Difficulties Questionnaire and the Achenbach System of Empirical Based Assessment (for emotional and behavioral problems); Kinetic Family Drawings, Incomplete Sentences, and the Adjective Checklist (for personality, social interactions). Observations, interviews, and informal assessment are also widely used.
Education. School psychologists educate children, their parents, guardians, tutors, or teachers about child development, education, and social and psychological problem prevention. Psychologists offer information and methodological assistance to teachers, specialists, parents, guardians, and tutors about the organization of education as it relates to children’s psychological, personality, and educational problems and their solutions. Psychologists inform and implement the latest scientific findings in psychology. They work to create a positive attitude in the school community and society toward children experiencing various psychological, personality, or learning difficulties.
Prevention. School psychologists assess the need for psychological problem prevention programs that help prevent psychological, personality, and learning problems and foster the development of students with social and mental problems. They prepare, organize, and implement preventive measures and programs; they prevent and intervene during psychological crises at school (e.g., following a suicide or an act of violence).
Supervision. School psychologists engage in supervision to ensure the quality of psychological work, professional development, and assistance in complicated cases. According to legislation, graduates of psychology must work under the supervision of an experienced colleague for 1 year following completion of their studies.
Psychologists from the Pedagogical Psychological Services also provide group counseling for children who have experienced a trauma (e.g., from loss or violence) or who suffer from any type of dependence. Psychologists working at the National Center of Special Education Needs and Psychology are responsible for considering issues of psychological assistance in complicated cases. This may be necessary when a child’s parents, guardians, or tutors do not agree with a decision concerning a psychological assessment made by the Special Education Commission or are dissatisfied with the quality of psychological service at a school or at municipal Pedagogical Psychological Services.
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
Rapid political, economic, and social changes in Lithuania since 1990 have had a tremendous impact on the country’s education system and on the development of school psychology. Legislative directives on psychological assistance in schools and school-related settings, the growing number of pedagogical psychological services, changes in educational psychology programs offered by universities, and increasingly close collaboration with colleagues from other countries have all created new opportunities for school psychologists. The growing role of the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations in developing guidelines to ensure the quality of professional psychologists in the educational system has also enhanced the profession.
Despite these advances, some issues regarding the provision of psychological assistance take top priority within the Lithuanian Psychologists’ Association. Issues around accreditation and licensing need to be resolved. The establishment of a licensing system for psychologists is currently being discussed by the Lithuanian Psychologists’ Association. The Lithuanian Psychologists’ Association and universities should work together to establish accreditation standards and initiate program reviews and modifications for psychology study programs. The lack of national standards for preparing educational psychologists leads to variation among universities in terms of what is provided and required. The description of the basic competencies required for the European Certificate in Psychology from the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations and the Guidelines for the Preparation of School Psychologists developed by International School Psychology Association are sufficient to prepare students to be “good enough” school psychologists and could be used to establish national standards.
Opportunities for professional development of school psychologists are urgently needed. Adequate financing of school psychologists’ continued training, qualification upgrading, and new qualification acquisition programs, in line with the needs of the education reform agenda, should be guaranteed. All psychologists working in educational settings should have the same opportunities to upgrade or acquire new qualifications. The existing system for certification of school psychologists is an issue. The role of psychologists in educational institutions needs to be clarified, and their functions need to be more precisely defined. Attention to training and upgrading qualifications is due. These considerations are included in the Provisions of the National Education Strategy 2003-2012, approved by the Lithuanian Parliament in 2003.
One of the many challenges school psychologists have been facing for a long time is psychological testing and assessment. It is an important area of psychological service, particularly for those working in multi-teams as members of the Special Education Commission at schools or pedagogical psychological services. Psychological testing in Lithuania during the past generation did not follow the same course as it did in many European, North American, or other countries. Testing was forbidden in the Soviet Union for a long time. This stopped the development of psychological testing in Lithuania until 2002, when the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III became the first intelligence test that was standardized in Lithuania. These scales were long awaited by school and clinical psychologists. School psychologists took an active part in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III standardization process and attended special courses organized at Vilnius University for test users. This event changed some negative attitudes regarding psychological testing and assessment that had dominated among professionals. Today it is important to pool the forces of all psychologists, those in academia and those in practice, to develop psychological instruments. School psychologists have thus far taken an active role in the standardization of the Strengths Difficulties Questionnaire, Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices, and the School Maturity Scale. Nonetheless, psychological assessment remains problematic, as test adaptation or construction is relatively expensive because of the small number of test users who have relevant qualifications.
Despite the university’s attempts to prepare more qualified specialists in educational psychology (the provision of psychological assistance at educational institutions), the number of such specialists, especially in rural areas, is extremely small. Educational institutions affiliated with the Special Education Commissions represent only a very small fraction of Lithuanian schools. The introduction of an inclusive practice in schools has created an increasing number of students who require psychological assistance, including assessment and consultation. The lack of specialists in some districts has forced Pedagogical Psychological Services to organize their work according to the practice model “refer, test, and place,” which means that ongoing consultations and other follow-up activities are very limited.
The current challenges in meeting children’s needs stimulate a search for new ways of interdisciplinary, interprofessional, and interser-vice cooperation. Educational systems, as well as health care services, require psychological support for projects designed for children’s mental health provision. The first epidemiological study on the mental health of Lithuanian children and adolescents, conducted in 2003-2005, was a result of the close cooperation between the researchers from the Department of General Psychology and the Center of Child Psychiatry and Social Paediatrics of Vilnius University. It can also be viewed as an example of effective cooperation between school psychologists, clinical psychologists, and psychiatrists working as a team in close collaboration with schools and families.
The Lithuanian experience shows that, despite political interference, the dispersion of people throughout the country, and limited resources, the country has, in a short time, developed legislation and a system of psychological assistance to address schoolchildren’s needs. Much work still needs to be done to improve, refine, and address shortcomings in the current system, training process, and core curriculum, but a road map has been charted to guide the process. The Lithuanian experience allows for, and welcomes, truly fascinating collaborative partnerships in cross-cultural research and the sharing of perspectives on curriculum and training.