Nora Katona. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Context of School Psychology
Located in Central Europe, Hungary is bordered by seven countries: Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, and Slovenia and Austria to the west. The terrain is mostly flat with some rolling plains, and there are hills and low mountains in the north. Hungary is 93,030 square kilometers, and, in 2005, the population of Hungary was slightly over 10 million. Its currency is the Hungarian Forint, and Hungary is a member of the European Union. The 2004 gross domestic product was US$149.3 billion, US$14,900 per capita, which is slightly more than half the average within the European Union. The annual economic growth is slower in comparison to other newly joining countries (MEH Elektronikuskormányzat-Központ, 2005). On the whole, Hungary is a moderately developed industrial-agricultural country, with approximately 65% of the national economy originating from service industries (mainly banking, economic services, and communal services), 25% from industrial activities, and 4% to 5% from agriculture and the building industry. In comparison to the average 4.2% of the gross domestic product spent on education in European Union countries, Hungary spends 5.4% on education and, within that, 1% on higher education (in comparison to the European Union average of 2%; MEH Elektronikuskormányzat-Központ, 2005).
Of the 10,117,000 inhabitants, currently 2,010,000 are of school age (3-22 years), and in the 2004-2005 academic year, 86.5% attended educational institutions full-time (Csernyák, Janák, Süpöl, & Zalánné Olbrich, 2005). Currently, compulsory education begins at age 6 and ends at age 16, but those beginning their compulsory education in the academic year 1998-1999 and later will now continue until they are 18 years of age (Ministry of Education, 2005).
Kindergartens typically accept children between the ages of 3 and 6. According to law, children have to attend 1 year of kindergarten before starting their elementary schooling. Students begin their elementary schooling between the ages of 5 and 7 years. Elementary schooling typically takes 8 years to complete.
Grades 9 through 12 are diversified according to levels of attainment, student motivation, and goals. In vocational or trade schools, students complete their general education studies (Grades 9-10) and begin learning a trade in Grades 11 and 12 (e.g., carpentry, cooking, etc.), ending their studies as a skilled worker. A secondary vocational or technical school is a combination of a trade school and a grammar school inasmuch as students have an opportunity to sit for levels A and O maturity exams and learn the basic elements of a chosen field; however, they only receive a skilled worker diploma if they continue their studies for a further year or two, typically gaining access to vocations tied to accredited postsecondary training programs (e.g., project manager, consumer services).
In grammar schools, the ultimate goal is to gain entrance to higher education by successfully taking levels Advanced and Ordinary maturity exams. Traditionally, grammar schools take 4 years to complete, but there are 6- and 8-year versions, as well. This means that the brightest students leave their local elementary school to continue their studies at these 6- or 8-year grammar schools. College studies take 3 years, whereas university-level studies take 5 years to complete. A typical doctoral program lasts 2 to 3 years and is to be completed after university studies.
Currently, special education needs are met in segregated institutions at the kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school levels in schools paralleling those of the majority Serious efforts are being made to integrate as many special needs students as possible into the mainstream schools. In most places, as the first step, social integration is sought.
As a result of changes in the political system (Public Education Act No. LXXIX, 1993), the government had already made provisions for non-government-owned schools. Today, government-owned and -financed schools are still in the overwhelming majority, but there is a balance in foundational/private and denominational schools (Halász & Lannert, 2004). At the kindergarten level, 91% of kindergartens are government owned, 3% are denominational, and 6% are private schools or those owned by foundations. Among elementary schools, 92% are state owned, 5% are denominational, and 3% are owned by foundations or other private entities. The number of denominational and private or foundation-owned institutions increases at the secondary level. The number of foundation-owned schools is evenly distributed among the three types of secondary schooling; an average of 17% of secondary schools belong in this category. Of all secondary schools, 7% are denominational; within that percentage, a disproportionately high 15% belong to the category of grammar schools, whereas only 3% belong to vocational/trade and 3% are secondary vocational/technical schools. Of the higher education institutions, 42% are state owned, 39% are denominational, and 19% are privately owned or are financed by foundations.
Throughout Hungary, the number of schools, average class size, and percentage of schools that are financed by the government are as follows: kindergarten, 3,405, 22.3, 91%; primary schools, 3,293, 19.8, 92%; secondary level, including vocational schools, 601, 25.3, 83%; technical schools, 794, 26.2, 76%; and grammar schools, 614, 28.8, 71%. In addition, there are 46 colleges, of which 28% are state owned, and of the 24 universities, 75% are state owned. Compulsory schooling starts in kindergarten, the first educational institution children attend. Due to the fact that, after World War II, two-earner families became the norm, the network of kindergartens became extensive. Currently, 327,000 children attend kindergarten, which is 87% of kindergarten-age children (3-6 years); only the last year of kindergarten is compulsory (Csernyák et al., 2005). Of this number, 1,500 have special education needs, and 75% of those students are educated in integrated settings with peers without special education needs (Csernyák et al, 2005). A brief summary of each of the schools is provided next.
Primary Education
The beginning of primary education is flexible; that is, children may enter when they are between the ages of 5 and 7 years. The majority of children enter at age 7. Primary schooling includes Grades 1 through 8. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the number of pupils entering primary education, in line with the demographic trends, has declined. Due to the steady decrease in the number of pupils entering first grade, there were fewer than 888,000 students in primary schools in the 2004-2005 school year, a mere 76% of the number in 1990-1991 (Csernyák et al., 2005). In the academic year of 2004-2005, 57,000 students of primary school age were recorded as having special education needs, the majority, 58%, in segregated classroom, institutions, or both (Ministry of Education, 2005). Forty-three thousand were diagnosed as having emotional and behavior adjustment problems.
In the year 2004, 118,000 students completed their primary education, and nearly all continued their studies into secondary schooling (Csernyák et al., 2005). According to data from 2003, 95% of students completed their primary education within the time limit for compulsory education (Csernyák et al., 2005), meaning that 6,000 did not complete the 8 years of primary schooling. Currently, 90% finish their primary education in the allotted time of 8 years—a figure that has remained stable for the past few years. Average class size is 20 pupils; this can be misleading as segregated special education classes have an average size of 12 pupils. Class sizes are regulated by maximum number of students. In Grades 1 through 4, it cannot be more than 21; in Grades 5 through 8, the maximum number is 27; and in secondary education, the maximum class size is 36. The performance of students during primary education is a factor in their acceptance to secondary schooling, with the most prestigious secondary schools holding entrance exams. Because of this, and because of the structure of secondary education, the Hungarian secondary education system is considered competitive and selective (Baranyi, 1997; Gazsó & Laki, 2004; Loránd, 1997).
Secondary Education
Secondary education includes four grade levels with three types of institutions. Secondary-level students are between the ages of 15 and 18 years. The structure of secondary education changed significantly between 1990 and 2002. This is partly due to the revised compulsory schooling age as well as the revamped national curriculum. The revisions of the law on education also opened the way for starting alternative and private schools as well as loosening the rigid structure of 8 years primary and 4 years secondary education.
In the academic year of 2004-2005, a total of 571,000 students participated in full-time secondary education, which is more than the number indicated by population data (500,000 students ages 15-18), suggesting that retention and flexible dates for starting schooling have had a large impact on these figures. According to official data, 97% of 15- to 17-year-olds participated in secondary education, whereas the percentage of 18-year-olds participating in the education system was 76%, which is equal to the European Union average (Ministry of Education, 2005).
There are three types of secondary schools: vocational schools, secondary vocational/technical schools, and grammar schools. Changes in the demand for education are reflected in the changes in the distribution of pupils by school types. Of the 571,000 secondary students, almost 23% attend vocational schools, 43% are students of secondary vocational/technical schools, and 34% are in grammar schools. Of the 194,000 studying in grammar schools, 16% attended 8-year grammar schools, 18% studied in 6-year grammar schools, and 66% were in traditional 4-year grammar schools (Csernyák et al., 2005).
Vocational school. Students who attend vocational school complete their education in 4 years (Grades 9-12). In Grades 9 and 10, the prescribed national core curriculum knowledge elements are taught and completed with a vocational orientation. Vocational training is completed in Grades 11 and 12. At the end of their studies, students receive a diploma declaring them skilled workers in a vocation (e.g., carpenter, waiter, call-center operator). Of the 132,000 completing vocational studies full-time (Csernyák et al., 2005), 10,000 (8%) were diagnosed as having special education needs and 4,000 as having emotional and behavior/adjustment difficulties (Ministry of Education, 2005). The number and proportion of students attending vocational school has been declining since the early 1990s, whereas the number attending secondary vocational/technical schools appears to be increasing.
Secondary vocational/technical schools. By completing education in secondary vocational/technical schools, students may take maturity exams (and thus compete for entrance to higher education), and they also receive basic vocational training, although it does not give them a skilled worker diploma. Of the 245,000 full-time students, 800 are diagnosed as having special education needs, most of them integrated, and 2,000 as having emotional and behavior/adjustment difficulties (Besenyei et al., 2005). A majority of secondary vocational schools provide advanced training for an additional duration, 1 or 2 years (Grade 13 and/or 14), which leads to a diploma of advanced technical training specializing in a given field. Advanced training is tied to secondary education institutions, but is considered as tertiary education.
Grammar schools. Grammar schools provide education in core areas (e.g., reading, math, science), the acknowledged aim of which is to prepare students for entry into higher education. The opportunities provided by the 2003 revisions to the Public Education Act were utilized most frequently in this type of school. As a result, not only are traditional 4-year grammar schools (Grades 9-12) available; newer forms, such as the 6-year (Grades 7-12) and 8-year (Grades 5-12) grammar schools, also have emerged. The 6- and 8-year types are seen as a form of elite training and function as tools of early selection, the best and most able students leaving their primary school before the end of the eighth grade. The rapid growth in the numbers studying in 6- and 8-year grammar schools has recently slowed, and only a minimal growth can be seen. In the academic year of 2004-2005,66,000 students attended 6- or 8-year grammar schools, and, of these, 28,000 were of primary school age (Grades 5-8). In the academic year of 2004-2005, 193,000 full-time students attended these schools, with 800 students diagnosed as having special education needs, 77% learning in integrated settings, and 1,000 students identified as having emotional and behavior/adjustment difficulties (Besenyei et al., 2005). A total of 76,000 received education as full-time students in 2004: 48% in grammar schools and 52% in secondary vocational schools. Twenty-eight thousand students received skilled worker diplomas in vocational schools, and 27,000 received advanced technical degrees in secondary vocational/technical schools. Seventy-nine percent of those in secondary education attended public schools, 16% in schools financed by the church, and 5% in other private schools (Csernyák et al., 2005).
If we look at special education needs, we find that 2% of the population in secondary schooling has been diagnosed as having special education needs, the majority (87%) of whom attend vocational training, and segregation is the norm in this school type (84%). The remaining 13% of students with special education needs are equally distributed among secondary vocational/technical schools and grammar schools, with integration being common. Many factors contribute to the high degree of segregation. One can argue that one of the reasons for the high percentage of segregated schools and classrooms stems from a strong, well-established segregated system of education for students with special education needs. The other element, no doubt, is the feeling from teachers that they are inadequately prepared to face the challenge of integration. A third element is definitely the inappropriate environment, thought of by many as the most important (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002), including restrictions in the physical environment and insufficient support teams.
Tertiary Education
Entrance into tertiary education (i.e., higher education) requires matriculation (in most cases, ordinary level, also referred to as O level), although extra points can be earned by taking advanced, or “A”-level, matriculation. This can be crucial for getting enough points to be accepted. The tertiary level in higher education consists of college (bachelor’s degree), university (master’s degree), postgraduate training, and obtaining a doctoral degree. In the academic year 2004-2005, 226,000 full-time students participated in full-time higher education, which is nearly triple what it was in 1990. Of the 226,000 students, 212,000 were earning their first diploma, 7,500 were completing advanced training, and 5,800 were earning postgraduate or doctoral degrees in the academic year of 2004-2005 (Csernyák et al., 2005). Of the full-time students, 80% were financed by the state.
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
The silencing of psychology after World War II was broken in the late 1960s with the establishment of Educational Child Guidance Centers. These were originally established with the specific aim of serving the needs of school-age children, their teachers, and families. These institutions function under the auspices of the local council and have become well-established psychological and educational services. These centers became heavily clinically oriented, and teachers became dissatisfied as the centers concentrated more and more on serving families, making school issues secondary.
In the 1980s, when rigid political ideologies loosened and the education system became less indoctrinated, a project was set up with the mutual cooperation of the Ministry of Education and the psychology department of Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, in 1986. As a result, the Ministry of Education provided funding for 30 school psychologists to be employed in schools for 2 years, and the psychology department of Eötvös Loránd University provided professional guidance. This project ended in 1988, and all of the schools opted to keep their school psychologists.
In 1987, a methodological base for school psychology was established at Eötvös Loránd University, the School Psychology Division was incorporated within the Hungarian Psychological Association in 1989, and the Hungarian School Psychology Association was formed in 1992. In this phase of development, school psychology was not codified; its existence was not officially recognized (Katona & Szitó, 1990). A major breakthrough occurred when Public Education Act No. LXXIX of 1993 was modified in 1996. The law used the title of “school psychologist,” stipulated that school psychologists could be employed in educational institutions, and also stated that only those with a postgraduate degree in educational psychology or those with psychology and teacher diplomas could be employed as school psychologists. The colloquium of the International School Psychology Association, held in Hungary in 1996, was instrumental in heightening government officials’ awareness of school psychology.
The 1996 revision of Public Education Act No. LXXIX defines who can be employed as a school psychologist, although there is no such degree offered in Hungary (Hunyady & Templom, 1990). The required postgraduate diploma is titled “Professional Educational Psychologist,” but the term school psychologist is used to denote those persons who work in the field (i.e., in schools or kindergartens). A unique characteristic of Hungary is that “school” psychologists working in kindergartens are referred to as “kindergarten psychologists.”
It is challenging to establish the precise numbers of school psychologists, as there is no requirement to provide this information. To further complicate the scenario, school psychologists can be employed by the schools, can be based in Educational Child Guidance Centers, or can be members of educational institutes based in county areas. In 1999, approximately 100 school psychologists were reported (Antalovits, 1999; Katona, 2000), and a nonrepresentative national survey in 2004 (Mezo, Mezo, & Józsa, in press) came up with 125 institutions (out of the 15,000 primary and secondary education institutions) stating they employed a school psychologist. Thus, it appears there are about 200 school psychologists in Hungary, predominantly female (90%) and with an average age of 32. Considering the number of children in compulsory education, this number of school psychologists would reflect a ratio of school psychologist per 7,300 children. In those schools that employ a school psychologist, this ratio is 1 to 1,000 to 1,500 children. Services of school psychologists are easiest to access in the center of the country and, in particular, within the capital city: More than two thirds of employed school psychologists work in this region. Going either east or west within the country, the number of school psychologists declines dramatically.
The salaries of school psychologists are determined by the fact that they are public servants, just as teachers are, and have a unified wage scale. With a university diploma, a school psychologist’s net salary is 254 to 458 euros per month. This figure does not differ from the average salary for secondary school teachers or any other professional in the education system (at school level) who has a university diploma. With postgraduate training, a school psychologist’s salary would be 260 to 469 euros per month. In both cases, the lower sum indicates a beginner’s salary with an increase of 6% every 7 years (the inflation rate is 12%15% annually). This level of income can be reached by other professionals and teachers if they have a degree in two subject areas. Teachers nevertheless may earn more than school psychologists if they work overtime or if they are willing to substitute for an absent teacher (neither is acknowledged in the case of school psychologists). Thus, the salaries of school psychologists are comparable to those of other workers in educational settings; however, the average salary is around half of the salary of those working in clinical settings and a third of those in private practice.
School psychologists can be found in all strata of education, including public, private, and special schools. Some are based directly in schools, some in Educational Child Guidance Centers, and some are employed by educational institutes. Those employed directly by schools are required to have 26 weekly contact hours; in other settings, this is 19 hours per week, although the law stipulates a 40-hour workweek in all settings. This act only states that school psychologists “may be” employed—it is not compulsory for educational institutes to do so.
Any psychologist in Hungary is free to take advantage of the numerous method-specific, accredited further training programs provided by associations or higher education institutions. Further training, free of charge, is provided on a monthly basis by the School Psychology Methods Center. Additional knowledge is provided by the journal of the Hungarian Psychological Association (Psychology Review), by the journal of the Psychology Department of the Hungarian Academy (Psychology), by the journal published by a consortium of universities (Applied Psychology), and by the series titled School Psychology, which is edited by the School Psychology Methods Center of Eötvös Loránd University.
Job stability is equal to that in Hungary as a whole (1.2% unemployed among those with university degrees), although, when financial restrictions affect education, it is usually support personnel—such as speech therapists, resource room teachers, and school psychologists—who are the first to go. Stability is higher where the school psychologist is employed via the Educational Child Guidance Center, but that is where the attrition rate is the highest, about 20% annually. One of the reasons behind this is that Educational Child Guidance Centers are predominantly based in clinical settings. Many who opt for being employed by the Educational Child Guidance Centers see this as an opportunity to get closer to a more prestigious clinical setting, but when confronted with the fact that they cannot change their position, they tend to seek employment elsewhere. As the financial and professional prestige of school psychology is relatively low, only those who are committed will remain employed in the field. One of the best indicators of job satisfaction is the attrition rate. Those staying tend to emphasize challenges, independence, and creativity as motivating elements.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
There are two professional organizations, the School Psychology Section of the Hungarian Psychological Society and the Hungarian School Psychology Association. There are no licensing requirements currently in place. One form of quality assurance is the fact that only diplomas resulting from nationally (governmental) accredited training programs are accepted, or foreign diplomas that have been adopted. By law, only those holding a master’s degree in psychology can call themselves a psychologist. Only psychologists holding a postgraduate degree in educational psychology can be appointed as school psychologists.
Laws and regulations governing the work of a school psychologist include the basic law governing compulsory education, including special education services (i.e., Public Education Act No. LXXIX of 1993), which has been revised by the government on numerous occasions. The most current revision is the 21/2005 (VII25) statute of the Ministry for Education and the 148/2005 (VII27) government regulation both taking effect as of September 1, 2005. The changes mainly affect rules of matriculation and open up further possibilities for realizing integration. This law designates that independent special education committees are to diagnose special education needs and determine eligibility for services. The 2005 regulation of the Ministry for Education states that it will draw up new directives for the kindergarten and compulsory schooling of children with special education needs; currently, there are no such directives. Vocational training is ruled by the Vocational Education Act LXXVI of 1993. Ethical standards, which have special sections regarding different applied fields and which are approved by the Hungarian Psychological Association, bind every psychologist.
Preparation of School Psychologists
A minimum of 5 years of studies in psychology is required to receive a master’s degree in psychology. There are five universities in Hungary preparing psychologists; each year, 250 individuals receive their master of arts degree in psychology. Some universities offer specialization during the master’s-degree program (usually in the last 2 years), but there are only two universities offering specialization in school psychology. Each year, 25 persons receive a master’s with specialization in school psychology. University programs tend to be theoretically oriented, with two-thirds lectures and one-third practice and seminars. An additional 40 hours of field experience is built in, usually in the last 2 years of the master’s-degree program.
By law, a psychologist may only practice independently if he or she has a postgraduate degree. A psychologist may apply to enter postgraduate training after a minimum of 1 year of supervised practice after receiving a master’s degree in psychology. Postgraduate degrees typically take the form of in-service training; thus, postgraduate training cannot be done full-time. The postgraduate degree for school psychologists is titled “professional educational psychologist” and takes 2 years to complete. There is only one university that offers this postgraduate degree. Annually, about 20 persons receive their postgraduate degree in professional educational psychology. This postgraduate degree is not only necessary for school psychologists but also is an option, together with clinical child psychology, for those working at Educational Guidance Centers. In Hungary, those interested in applied fields and service tend to choose postgraduate training after obtaining their master’s degree, and those theoretically inclined tend to enter doctorate programs. Currently, no doctoral-level training is offered specifically for school psychology.
As for the content of master’s-degree training, biological bases and core academic knowledge of psychology takes up the first 3 years of university studies, which includes basic and extended scientific statistical knowledge. During these first 3 years, students complete research courses in the core fields, write research papers with appropriate statistical analysis, and take comprehensive exams in experimental psychology (which include the topics of learning, cognition, and memory), developmental psychology, and personality and social Psychology. They also learn about basic intellectual, behavioral, emotional, and social assessment methods and basic information about applied fields, ethical issues, and professional interpersonal skills. A focus on children and youth is provided by studies in developmental and educational psychology within the context of families, school, classrooms, and communities. These issues are repeatedly addressed if a school psychology or educational psychology specialization is chosen in the last 2 years. In the last 2 years, applied fields predominate.
There is great diversity among universities regarding the amount of specialization and depth and breadth of studies. Studies of advanced assessment and intervention methods are thus geared toward the applied field concerned, as are professional decision-making skills and intervention methods. In assessment, all basic aspects are included: intellectual, behavioral, emotional, and social assessment methods. Intervention methods courses cover behavioral, affective, educational, and social systems approaches. Legal aspects are discussed in the framework of the specific applied field. In the course of postgraduate training, assessment and intervention approaches specific to the applied field are covered, and common legal and ethical issues are discussed.
The structure and therefore, to some extent, the content described in this section will change as of autumn 2006 as a result of Hungary’s adhering to the Bologna agreement. According to the new the Higher Education Act No. CXXXIX, which was put into effect November 1, 2005, from autumn 2006 there will be separate bachelor’s degree and master’s degree levels. The bachelor’s-degree level training takes 3 years to complete and results in a degree of “behavior analyst.” A further 2 years of study in psychology is required to earn a master’s degree in Psychology. Those holding a master’s degree in Psychology are now acknowledged as psychologists.
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
As indicated previously, special education committees diagnose special education needs; thus, school psychologists are relieved of these extensive assessment duties—school psychologists’ primary activities involve screening, prevention, intervention, and consultation. The following headings are taken from an article by Oakland and Cunningham (1997) on the International School Psychology Association definition of school psychology.
Testing and assessment models and methods. Psychological, behavioral, social systems, and ecological models of testing and assessment are relied on. As cited earlier, by law, school psychologists are not responsible for official diagnosis of special needs; thus, screening predominates. Screening for school readiness is one of the major tasks performed by kindergarten and school psychologists alike. To assess various cognitive abilities, a composite method compiled by Porkolábné Balogh (1990) and the Massachusetts School Street Test is used; the Sindelar method also is used. If the need arises, testing for intellectual abilities is done before the referral to the special education committee. The Hungarian version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, third edition, or the Hungarian version of the Woodcock-Johnson international edition, or the Budapest Binet is used to assess cognitive abilities. In the case of a teacher, parent, or self-referral, problem-specific testing and assessment are performed. In the field of personality and temperament, the Eysenck, Wartegg, and Picture Frustration tests are commonly used. A standard element in school psychological work is vocational and career counseling. This becomes an important issue in Grades 8 and 12, where value orientation and differential interest tests are used. Group screening procedures for anxiety and stress are frequently used, and the use of sociometry also is common. In the assessment procedure, structured observations play an important role. The development of reliable, curriculum-based assessment is an ongoing task, in part, because of the relatively frequent changes made to the curriculum in the past few years, as well as school psychologists’ need for assessments linked with intervention.
Interventions. Interventions tend to emphasize prevention. One of the most common functions of school psychologists is to promote development to fulfill potential and minimize possible difficulties in school achievement. Another common function is to actively participate in drug prevention programs. Interventions utilize individually oriented and group focused approaches with direct and indirect services tending to be balanced. In direct, individually focused interventions, dynamic, focused short-term therapies and counseling are often used. Group approaches would be in the sphere of drug prevention or developmentally focused interventions.
Consultation. The responsibility of consulting with teachers and parents has been a primary duty of school psychologists from the very beginning when school psychological services were initiated (Porkolábné Balogh & Szitó, 1987). Consultation with colleagues working at community and regional levels is essential, with Educational Child Guidance Centers and special education Committees being regular contacts for school psychologists.
Organizational and program development services. These types of services have currently surfaced, as the law requires that schools develop their own education profiles and curricula. As integration or inclusion is more and more sought after, the need for individual education planning has emerged, but these skills still need to be developed.
Supervision. Supervisory responsibilities are present where school psychologist teams have developed, mainly as a part of Educational Child Guidance Centers.
Current Issues Affecting School Psychology
One of the major challenges is to define and maintain an identity for the school psychologist. Testing and assessment are officially the role of committees and centers, whereas therapies are considered the domain of clinical child psychologists and the function of Educational Child Guidance Centers. An important step to be taken would be to develop a collection of adequate tools specific to school psychology. The strong integration and inclusion initiatives of the Ministry of Education imply possible growth and offer a potential identity for the school psychologist. There is consensus of professional and public opinion indicating that the intentions of the Ministry are only viable if appropriate support professionals are present in school, but financial restrictions in the field of education render this impossible (Huba, 2005; Kopatakiné Mészáros, 2005; Vargáné Mezo, 2003). Hence, the core of the problem is financial. Improving the skills of school psychologists in the area of program design and evaluation, curriculum-based assessment, and individual education plans could be instrumental in convincing the education administration to increase financing and, at the same time, facilitate competency among school psychologists. This issue is addressed by the further training plan of the School Psychology Methods Base, which provides regular in-service training to school psychologists. The aforementioned issues have become even more pressing, as the Ministry for Education has launched its project to develop and introduce competency-based teaching in the sphere of public education.