Chryse Hatzichristou, Fotini Polychrom, Georgios Georgouleas. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Ancient Greek civilization reached its acme during the 5th century BC, giving birth to philosophy and poetry and offering foundations for science and modern Western civilization. Ancient Greek philosophers, especially Plato and Aristotle, were the first to mention psychological notions; the word psychology is of Greek origin, and the international symbol for psychological science is a letter of the Greek alphabet. During Hellenistic and Roman times, the Greek language was the main language used by philosophers and scholars. From the 4th to the mid 15th century CE Greece was part of the Byzantine Empire. After the fall of Byzantine Empire, Greece was conquered by the Ottomans and became a part of the Ottoman Empire for about 400 years. In modern times, Greece was recognized as an independent state in 1830 after the treaty of London, following the war of independence against the Ottoman Empire that started in 1821. During the 19th and 20th centuries, after several wars of liberation, northern Greece, the Northern Aegean Islands, Crete, and the Dodecanese Islands were incorporated within the modern Greek state. In 1974, Greece became a parliamentary republic, and, in 1981, Greece became the 10th member of the European Community, now the European Union.
The total population of Greece, according to the 2001 census, was 10,964,020 (males 49.5%). The population distribution by age is birth to 14 years, 15% (males 52%); 15 to 64 years, 68% (males 50%); 65 years and older, 17% (males 45%). Almost 93% of the inhabitants are of Greek origin, and 7% are immigrants (National Statistical Service of Greece, 2005). The landmass of Greece is 131,957 square kilometers. Greece, a peninsula of the Mediterranean Sea, lies at the southeastern part of Europe and shares borders with Turkey, Bulgaria, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Albania. Its geography is diverse, with a huge coastline of 16,000 kilometers and more than 3,000 islands, but there are also high mountains and river valleys in the mainland, especially in central and northern Greece. During the past century, the Greek economy has been marked by great changes and rapid development, with a gross domestic product in 2004 of US$226.4 billion, US$21,300 per capita (World Bank, 2005). Currently, the economy in Greece is largely oriented toward tourism, shipping, and commerce. Employment includes managerial and professional (24%); technical (23%); administrative support (11%); manufacturing (7%); services and sales (14%); and agriculture, cattle-breeding, and fishing (12%) (National Statistical Service of Greece, 2005). According to the 2001 census, 2,393,000 persons younger than 19 years old resided in Greece (i.e., approximately 22% of the population). Almost 530,000 were of age 4 or younger, 546,000 of ages 5 to 9, 588,000 of ages 10 to 14, and 729,000 of ages 15 to 19. Births decreased from 14.42 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1982 to 9.43 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2002 (National Statistical Service of Greece, 2005). Approximately 4% of children lived in single-parent families.
The educational system is highly centralized, and all schools follow the National Curriculum provided by the Ministry of Education regarding all aspects of the education process. In public schools, at all educational levels, education is free and course books are provided free by the State. There is a strong emphasis on education in Greek society. The pursuit of university studies is regarded highly by Greek parents, and there is family and societal pressure on children to succeed on the university entrance exam.
The educational system includes nursery school (ages 3-4 years), kindergarten nipia-gogeio (ages 5-6 years), primary education level: elementary school dimotiko (6 years, ages 6-12), secondary education level: junior high school gymnasio (3 years, ages 13-15), high school lykeio (3 years, ages 16-18) and technical schools, and tertiary education level: universities and technological educational institutes. According to 2003 statistical data from the National Ministry of Education, 142,051 children were enrolled in kindergarten, 652,052 in elementary schools, 341,048 in junior high schools, and 371,329 in high schools and technical schools. Nine years of education (elementary and junior high school) is compulsory for all children, and approximately 95% of children complete the nine years. The numbers of children attending nursery school have increased over the past years. The percentage of children attending kindergarten reached 82% in 2002. Furthermore, 60% of these children entered kindergarten having been enrolled in nursery school the preceding year. The average class size during kindergarten is estimated at 24 to 25 students, during elementary school at 17 to 18 students, and during high school at 23 students (Eurydice European Unit, 2005).
Private schools exist in the primary and secondary education levels with students coming primarily from families who can afford to pay the tuition fees. Approximately 4% of kindergarten students, 8% of elementary school students, 6% of junior high school students, 7% of high school students, and 5% of technical school students attended private schools in 2002 (Eurydice European Unit, 2005). During the past two decades, the number of immigrant students has increased, with 7% of school-age children having immigrant parents and 2% of school-age children having “re-migrant” parents (Eurydice European Unit, 2005). Approximately 20,000 children received special education services in 335 special schools and 1,067 resource classes at all educational levels (i.e., primary, secondary, and technical) in 2004. Among these special education students, approximately 67% were classified as learning disabled, about 15% as mentally retarded, 4% with motor difficulties, and another 4% with sensory problems (Eurydice European Unit, 2005).
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
Psychology in Greece has its origins in ancient Greek philosophy. Greek philosophers, including Protagoras, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, introduced many psychological concepts and approaches in their attempts to explain human behavior and communication. For example, Aristotle investigated psychological phenomena, primarily in De Anima, “Peri Psychis,” and touched on psychological topics about perception, thinking, and soul-body relations in Parva Naturalia, “Ta Physika.” As a consequence, a number of psychological terms used today can be traced back to these philosophers’ schools of thought. During a historical period of only a few hundred years, 25 centuries ago, the psyche of a man was explored in a systematic, logical, and scientific way by Greek philosophers (Romilly, 1992), making them the precursors of many theorists in modern psychology.
Fagan (1986) suggested that the history of school psychology in the United States can be divided into two general periods: the Hybrid Years (1890-1970), reflecting the early period of development of school psychology, and the Thoroughbred Years (1970-present), reflecting its more recent self-dependence and consolidation. Following Fagan’s division, as described in Hatzichristou (2002), the history of psychology in the schools in Greece can be divided into two similar general periods: the Hybrid Years, ending with the 20th century, and the Thoroughbred Years, starting gradually in the new millennium. The evolution of school psychology in Greece closely resembles that of other countries: In the early years, the identity of psychology emerged gradually from the disciplines of philosophy, psychology, and education, and school Psychology lacked specialized training and practice and professional recognition.
Despite the contribution of ancient Greek philosophy, the field of modern psychology and the applied areas of psychology (e.g., school psychology) developed slowly compared with the rapid developments that took place in some European countries and in North America in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century (Georgas, 1995). As a result of the strong connection between philosophy and psychology, psychology was studied as a major at the undergraduate level within departments of philosophy, psychology, and education in Greek universities in the 1980s. Gradually, starting from the end of the 1980s and the early 1990s, independent departments of psychology offering degrees in psychology were established at the University of Crete, the University of Athens, the University of Thessaloniki, and the Panteion University (in chronological order). At that time, many psychologists working in Greece were educated and trained in other countries (mainly in Europe and in the United States), and this had led to some difficulties due to the variety of their educational backgrounds.
The first 50 psychologists in the Greek public educational system were appointed in public special education schools and units in 1989 (Law 1566/85), and formal training of school psychologists began in Greek universities (see the section “Preparation of School Psychologists” in this chapter for a full description of programs). It is evident that, as in other countries, the preparation and training of school psychologists followed the need for the provision of school psychological services. Initially, graduate preparation in school psychology encountered a number of problems, mainly related to the faculty members being educated in different countries, the blending of training with clinical psychology, the lack of coordination between the university departments regarding the core school Psychology program curriculum, and the lack of a clear definition of the specialty and the guidelines for provision of services (Hatzichristou, 2002). School psychology graduate programs progressively started delineating the different roles of school psychologists, emphasizing the importance of school-based provision of services in close collaboration with teachers (Paraskevopoulos, 1992).
In the last decade, the evolution of school psychology was related to several events, including the establishment of independent departments of psychology, the graduate programs in school psychology, the legislation that provided for posts for psychologists in the public special schools and the Centers for Diagnosis, Assessment, and Support, the provision of psychological services in the schools by Community Mental Health Centers, the notable increase of the relevant literature in Greek, the establishment of University Centers of School Psychology and the development of alternative models for the provision of school psychological services (Georgas, 1995; Hatzichristou, 1998, 2002, 2004a, 2004b).
In an effort to incorporate basic components defining school psychology and influencing its evolution, a conceptual framework of the evolution of school psychology was proposed by Hatzichristou (2002). The proposed framework synthesizes the following domains: (1) role and specialty definition-professional practice; (2) legal issues: (a) state and federal-national laws and statutes impacting psychology, education, and provision of services and (b) certification/licensure; (3) education/preparation, accreditation; (4) scientific and professional associations; (5) scientific foundation for practice; and (6) professional identity.
There is a lack of official data regarding number, demographic characteristics, roles, and functions of school psychologists in different settings. There is a rough estimation of 400 psychologists working in public and private educational settings. No official data are available regarding the number of psychologists providing psychological services to children and families in community mental health centers, special need centers, hospital clinics, and nongovernmental foundations. The majority of psychologists are employed by the Ministry of Education and work in public special schools and units and in the Centers for Diagnosis, Assessment, and Support as members of an interdisciplinary team. A smaller number of psychologists work in private schools, mental health centers, and special needs centers, which are typically located in large cities. Finally, psychologists work in university settings and private practice. Proportionately more psychologists work in urban areas (especially Athens and Thessaloniki) and fewer in suburban areas. No reliable method exists for estimating psychologist-student ratios because there is a lack of relevant data in the Greek educational system. The salary of school psychologists working in public schools and public centers depends on the number of years of experience that they have worked in the profession. The starting salary is about 1,100 euros per month on average for a psychologist working in a school setting. There is a gradual increase of salary, depending on years of experience, level of graduate studies, and family status (i.e., marital status, number of children). Psychologists working in the public education system are typically employed on a permanent basis (i.e., they are employed by the state as civil servants), and, as a consequence, attrition rates are very low or nonexistent. Opportunities for career advancement occur, as psychologists can take managerial positions after a set number of years of practice. There are also certain opportunities for professional development for school psychologists. In addition, psychologists may take a leave of absence to obtain a higher degree.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
There are two major psychology associations in Greece: the Association of Greek Psychologists and the Hellenic Psychological Society. The Association of Greek Psychologists was established in 1963 and is a member of the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations. Among the central aims of the Association of Greek Psychologists is advancing the scientific psychological research and upholding the high standards of the scientific and professional role of psychologists, protecting the profession of psychology, and informing and disseminating psychological knowledge to the public. Members of the Association of Greek Psychologists are practicing psychologists, of all specialties, working in public institutes, educational settings, and private practice. The majority of Greek psychologists are members of the Association of Greek Psychologists (about 1,400 members). The Association of Greek Psychologists has done much to enhance the interests of psychology, particularly in respect to public policy. Members of the Association of Greek Psychologists have been actively involved in several national and international committees and task forces. A major contribution of the Association of Greek Psychologists was publishing the Ethics Code (Association of Greek Psychologists, 1997), which addresses issues concerning standards of practice. The journal Psychologika Themata (Psychological Issues) is also published periodically by the Association of Greek Psychologists.
The second association, the Hellenic Psychological Society, was established in 1991, aiming at the promotion of research and teaching of psychology, the exchange of ideas among psychologists, teaching and conducting research in Greek universities and research institutes, and the support of psychological science. This scientific society is a member of the International Union of Psychological Sciences and includes about 500 members (with the majority being full members). Another aim of the Hellenic Psychological Society is to disseminate scientific psychological knowledge among the public and to promote the well-being of individuals, communities, and society in general. Psychologists who work in universities and research centers are typically members of this society. The minimum requirement for full membership is a doctoral degree in psychology. Task forces have been established within the Hellenic Psychological Society: Terminology, Crisis Intervention, International Affairs, Psychology and Media, and Ethics and Bioethics. The Hellenic Psychological Society has organized panhellenic congresses of scientific research every two years since 1989, in all fields of psychology, basic science, and applied psychology. Thematic conferences and seminars in areas such as school psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, cognitive science, personality, motivation, clinical and counseling psychology, and so forth have also been organized in collaboration with other national and international professional and scientific associations in the area of psychology and related disciplines. The Hellenic Psychological Society and the Association of Greek Psychologists organized the Fourth European Congress of Psychology in 1995 and are currently co-organizing the 26th International Congress of Applied Psychology, to be held in Athens in 2006.
Ten divisions of various specialties (e.g., social psychology, developmental psychology, organizational psychology, counseling psychology, clinical psychology), including the Division of School Psychology, were established within the Hellenic Psychological Society in 2000. Members can apply for membership in two divisions based on their areas of interest and work; there is no criterion of specialty training. The executive Committee and the chairs of the divisions are elected biannually. Among the activities of the association is the organization of the biannual Panhellenic Conference of Psychological Research, in collaboration with a university department in a different city each time; the publication of the peer-refereed journal Psychologia (Psychology), published four times a year; and a regular newsletter distributed to all members.
The Division of School Psychology of the Hellenic Psychological Society is an affiliate association of the International School Psychology Association. During the past few years, the division has organized symposia and workshops in the Panhellenic Conferences of Psychological Research held by the Hellenic Psychological Society and a number of other regional, national, and international conferences. It has also set up a work group on learning disabilities with the aim of reviewing theory and practice and clarifying issues regarding definition, assessment, intervention, and the role of school psychologist as a member of a multidisciplinary team, resulting in the publication of a special issue (Polychroni, Hatzichristou, & Bibou, eds., in press). It is envisaged that the published version of this work will increase public awareness on learning disabilities and become a position statement based on current scientific knowledge.
Hellinon Scholikon Psychologon Etaireia (The Greek Association of School Psychologists) is a professional association, its members mainly being practicing psychologists in special schools; specialization in school psychology is not a requirement for membership. Among the activities of the association is organizing seminars and conferences and, in general, advancing issues of the profession. In addition to the aforementioned associations, there exist other associations, which deal with issues of child education and support, such as the Society for Children’s Mental Health and Neuropsychiatry, the Hellenic Pedagogical Society, the Society for the Psychosocial Health of Children and Adolescents, and so on.
In 2005, the 27th International School Psychology Colloquium was organized in Athens, Greece, by the International School Psychology Association and the Department of Psychology, University of Athens, in collaboration with the Hellenic Psychological Society, the Association of Greek Psychologists, the Division of School Psychology of the Hellenic Psychological Society, and the Greek Association of School Psychologists. The conference, the first on school psychology to be held in Greece, attracted a large number of Greek participants who were given the opportunity to present their work, both theoretical and applied, and interact and share common ideas and concerns with colleagues from around the world who worked in different settings. Throughout the conference, the importance of the role of school psychologists in the Greek schools and the increased need for a systematic provision of school psychological services in the Greek public educational system were made evident. Moreover, the large number and the enthusiasm of graduate students who attended the conference generated optimism and confidence for the future of school psychology in Greece.
Law 1566/85, regarding the structure and function of primary and secondary education, stated that 50 psychologists should be appointed and placed in special education schools and units. A recent law (2817/2000) of the Ministry of Education (March 2000) addresses educational policy issues regarding special education needs and the integration of students with special needs into regular schools. It also expands the provision of services of psychologists to regular schools. Centers for Diagnosis, Assessment, and Support are to provide services for students in the public schools, staffed by a multidisciplinary team comprising psychologists, psychiatrists, special education teachers, speech therapists, and occupational therapists. According to Law 2817/2000, 149 psychologists were to be appointed in the Centers for Diagnosis, Assessment, and Support. Despite the potentially large impact that this law may have for the future of school psychology in Greece, strong doubts have been voiced, especially because emphasis is again given to special education assessment and placement, thus perpetuating the “clinical model” that dominated school psychology in the earlier years. Moreover, no additional training in school psychology is required for psychologists employed in Centers for Diagnosis, Assessment, and Support. Thus, a considerable percentage of psychologists who work today in education have no training in school psychology but, instead, have training in clinical psychology and psychotherapy.
To practice as a psychologist in Greece requires a license, as regulated by laws enacted in 1979 and 1998 (278/79, 1331/B/98). This license is generic and requires at least a bachelor’s degree in psychology. Currently, there is no specialty licensure for psychologists in Greece. A committee was formed in 2000 by the Ministry of Health to propose the specific qualifications needed for obtaining a specialty license in clinical, school, and organizational psychology.
Preparation of School Psychologists
Approximately 650 students are enrolled each year in the four psychology departments across the country. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, independent departments of Psychology were created in four Greek universities in the late 1980s (University of Crete, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, and Panteion University of Social and Political Studies). Following that, graduate programs (school, clinical, organizational, and cognitive psychology) started in faculties. All graduate programs are organized by the relevant university departments and operate under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education.
The undergraduate studies leading to a pty-chion in psychology (equivalent to a bachelor’s degree) are 4 years long. The graduate studies leading to a metaptychiako (equivalent to master’s degree) are 2 years, and for the doctoral studies 4 years (the first two years include the master’s course). Access to the didaktoriko (equivalent to the doctorate) requires a successful completion of the master’s degree (in cases where master’s programs run in the respective departments). Attainment of a bachelor’s degree typically requires (a) compulsory and optional courses and seminars in psychology (equivalent to 160 credits at the University of Athens), (b) internship in institutions of applied Psychology (equivalent to 10 credits at the University of Athens), and (c) a dissertation (equivalent to 10 credits at the University of Athens).
There are two graduate programs in school psychology leading to a master’s degree: (a) the Graduate Program of School Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Athens and (b) the Graduate Program of School and Developmental Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Thessaloniki.
The Graduate Program of School Psychology at the University of Athens started in 1993 (Acts 952/1993, 305/1996). Throughout the program, the importance of a scientist-practitioner model for professional preparation and practice is emphasized. Studies last four academic semesters. Attainment of the master’s degree typically requires completion of 20 courses, an internship (800 hours in regular and special schools, mental health centers, counseling centers), a master’s dissertation, and participation in research and educational activities. Each year, 15 to 20 students are accepted. Emphasis is given to a multidisciplinary approach, aiming at enhancing communication and collaboration among professionals of different specialties depending on their education and their role in the school setting.
According to the 2005-2006 program outline, the 20 courses are in accordance with the following domains of school psychology training and practice: (1) core academic knowledge of psychology: developmental psychology, school psychology, developmental neuropsychology, intelligence and learning, social psychology-small group dynamics, psychology of personality-developmental deviations; (2) assessment: assessment of cognitive skills, assessment of learning disabilities, assessment of personality and social assessment, assessment of school career guidance; (3) abnormal Psychology and special educational needs; (4) intervention: counseling psychology, psychological consultation, prevention programs, psychotherapeutic interventions; (5) research methodology and advanced-level statistics; and (6) internship and supervision.
The establishment of the Center for Research and Practice of School Psychology, in the Department of Psychology at the University of Athens, has helped to link theory, research, training of graduate students, and implementation of intervention programs in schools as well as providing links between the university, schools, professional bodies, and institutions. In the context of a databased model of alternative school psychological services, several primary and secondary programs have been designed, implemented, and evaluated in educational settings in Greece and Cyprus (Hatzichristou, 2004a; Hatzichristou & Lampropoulou, 2004). At the primary prevention level, the program on Social and Emotional Learning in Schools was developed, implemented, and evaluated in primary and secondary schools, and different models of training of graduate students and teachers were put into practice (Hatzichristou, 2004c, 2004d).
The Graduate Program of School and Developmental Psychology, at the Department of Psychology, University of Thessaloniki, was established in 1993. Studies last four academic semesters and include theoretical courses, an internship (800 hours), research, participation in teaching and educational activities, and a dissertation. Seven students are accepted each year. Courses include Normal Development and Deviations, School Psychology, Research Methodology and Statistics, and Practical Applications of Developmental and School Psychology (course outline 2004-2005). In addition, a graduate program with a major in school psychology recently started at the Department of Psychology, University of Crete.
Representatives from Greek psychology associations have been involved in the EuroPsy project (2001-2003), funded under the European Union Leonardo Da Vinci Program, with the overall aim to develop a European diploma in psychology. The report indicates that there is a need to develop the transparency of qualifications and to develop new approaches to the specification of knowledge, skills, and competencies required by psychologists in Europe at the undergraduate and graduate levels.
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
On the whole, there is a lack of national survey data concerning the roles, functions, and responsibilities of psychologists working in educational settings in Greece. The nature of their roles, functions, and responsibilities depends on the context in which a psychologist works (e.g., in Centers for Diagnosis, Assessment, and Support, special schools, psychoeducational centers, or private schools) and the availability of other professionals (e.g., special education teachers, social workers, psychiatrists) as members of multidisciplinary teams. As a result, psychologists spend their time in diverse activities. In general, psychologists working in educational settings in Greece tend to devote a great percentage of their time to psychological assessment and counseling.
Two relevant studies provide data on the role and functions of psychologists working with children and families in various settings. A recent study commissioned by the International School Psychology Association Research Committee compared the training, roles, and responsibilities of school psychologists in different countries (Jimerson et al, 2004). The sample in Greece included 50 psychologists employed in educational settings. These psychologists reported devoting 20% of their time to psychoeducational evaluations, 20% to counseling students, 20% to consultation with parents/families, 10% to consultation with teachers and staff, 10% to providing direct interventions, 10% to administrative responsibilities, 5% to providing primary prevention programs, and 5% to conducting staff training and in-service programs. In addition, the International School Psychology Survey also revealed that, ideally, the specific sample of psychologists working in educational settings would prefer the following roles/responsibilities/activities (cited in rank order): (1) counseling students, (2) consulting with parents/families, (3) providing primary prevention programs, (4) conducting psychoeducational evaluations, (5) consulting with teachers and staff, (6) providing direct interventions, (7) conducting staff training and in-service/education programs, and (8) performing administrative duties.
In addition, according to the results of another relevant study (Besevegis & Giannitsas, 2000), psychologists employed in community mental health centers and special school settings placed more emphasis on the clinical model in terms of assessment and intervention. Specifically, the following conclusions were drawn:
- Psychologists working in community mental health settings use a wide range of psychometric tools for assessment, whereas those working in special education settings primarily use checklists and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (third edition).
- A limited number of psychologists have been trained in the use of psychometric tests.
- The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition) and the International Classification of Diseases are used as the main classification systems in community health settings, though not in special education.
- In terms of assessment, the psychodynamic and the systemic approach are followed; in the special schools, behaviorism is also used.
- As the main problems for the multidisciplinary team, the psychologists reported the lack of means, limited support, need for a clear role definition, and different theoretical background of professionals with regard to assessment and intervention.
Typically, a school psychologist’s role includes conducting psychoeducational evaluations; counseling individual students; consulting with parents and/or other family members, teachers, and staff; providing direct interventions; conducting staff training; delivering in-service programs; and fulfilling administrative responsibilities.
Psychoeducational evaluations are mainly carried out with students with learning or emotional difficulties. School psychologists typically evaluate a student’s cognitive, social, and emotional levels of development using psychological assessment techniques (Besevegis & Giannitsas, 2000; Jimerson et al., 2004). In Greece, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, third edition, standardized in Greek by Georgas, Paraskevopoulos, Besevegis, and Giannitsas (1998), is the most commonly used instrument for assessing intellectual abilities. The “Athena” test (Paraskevopoulos, Kalantzi-Azizi, & Giannitsas, 1999) is used for screening as well as for assessing kindergarten and elementary school students’ learning difficulties. Given that one of the most frequent roles of a school psychologist in Greece is to assess for learning disabilities and dyslexia in order for the student to qualify for educational support (e.g., he or she may opt to participate in oral examinations in secondary schools), psychologists follow a curriculum-based assessment process using nonstandardized, informal tools (text reading, free writing, dictation, written comprehension, etc.). Projective techniques (e.g., Rorschach, Thematic Apperception Test) as well as personality and temperament questionnaires (e.g., Inventory of Children’s Individual Differences, Halverson et al., 2003) are used for personality assessment (Besevegis & Giannitsas, 2000; Hatzichristou, 2004b). Rating scales (e.g., Achenbach & Rescorla, 2004) are used in order to assess children’s behavior and social skills. At this point, it has to be noted that translation and standardization of tests for assessment and research is a long process. Recently, an effort was made to collect the majority of assessment tools (translated, adapted, and/or standardized) currently in use by Greek psychologists (Stalikas, Triliva, & Roussi, 2002).
In addition, psychologists conduct individual counseling sessions with students and consultation with parents and/or other family members, as well as consultation with teachers and staff, focusing mainly on educational and/or emotional difficulties. Helping parents understand the way that they may actively participate in their child’s development and to provide support in crises are the most common topics of consultation. Working with teachers in order to plan mainly individual educational programs and exchange information concerning children’s performance is also very common. During the past few years, great emphasis has been given to the indirect model of service provision.
Direct intervention, used to promote children’s cognitive and emotional development, may include teaching, counseling, and various therapeutic techniques (e.g., play therapy). Primary prevention programs include those that focus on promotion of mental health, social and emotional learning, prevention of drug abuse, and those that deal with immigrant students’ adjustment difficulties. Conducting staff training and in-service programs, as well as supervising psychology students, also may be part of school psychologists’ roles. Finally, psychologists must perform administrative tasks, such as keeping records of students with learning difficulties and special needs.
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
During the past few years, the field of Psychology has rapidly expanded in Greece, and a great deal of effort has been put into promoting the discipline of school psychology. There is an increasing need to respond to challenges currently impacting school psychology in the Greek educational system, concerning the interrelated domains of the conceptual framework (Hatzichristou, 2002), as described in this chapter. Another important topic is that of legislative issues, for instance, providing a specialty license (with a master’s degree as a minimum level) and developing strategic planning regarding the provision of psychological services in the mainstream public schools (currently nonexistent). This could be accomplished by either expanding the role of school psychologist at the recently founded Centers for Diagnosis, Assessment, and Support and/or by establishing new services. In addition, the topic of preparation and training is also a current issue. For instance, establishing more graduate programs of school psychology, including all recent developments regarding theory, research, and practice in school psychology, with a particular emphasis on the scientist-practitioner model and evidence-based interventions and the development of models connecting school Psychology programs with the school community. Furthermore, it is essential to continue the efforts of the associations in the development of a specialty definition, standards of practice, guidelines for the provision of school psychological services, and position statements generated by task forces on advocacy issues for appropriate educational services for all children.