Ernestina A Papacosta. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Cyprus is an island situated in the eastern Mediterranean about 386 kilometers north of Egypt, 97 kilometers west of Syria, and 64 kilometers south of Turkey. The island is at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe. Its area is 9,251 square kilometers, of which 1,733 square kilometers is forested. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean, after Sicily and Sardinia. Coastal lowlands, varying in width, surround the island. The Troodos Mountains cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half of its area. The Pentadaktylos Mountains extend along the northern coastline. Cypriot culture is among the oldest in the Mediterranean. A former British colony, Cyprus gained its independence in 1960, following years of resistance to British rule. Shortly after the founding of the republic, serious differences arose between Greek-Cypriots and Turkish-Cypriots about the implementation and interpretation of the constitution. In 1963, when Makarios, the first president of Cyprus, advanced proposals to amend the constitution in order to facilitate the functioning of government, the Turkish side strongly rejected them. The ensuing constitutional deadlock gave rise to intercommunal clashes and tensions. On July 15, 1974, the ruling military junta of Greece staged a coup to overthrow the democratically elected government of Cyprus. On July 20, 1974, Turkey, using the coup as a pretext, invaded Cyprus purportedly to restore constitutional order. It seized 35% of the territory of Cyprus in the north, an act universally condemned as a gross infringement of international law and the United Nations Charter.
In November 1983, the Turkish-occupied area was unilaterally declared an “independent state.” The international community, through United Nations Security Council resolutions 541 of 1983 and 550 of 1984, condemned this unilateral declaration by the Turkish Cypriot regime, declared it both illegal and invalid, and called for its immediate revocation. To this day, no country in the world except Turkey has recognized this entity. The Republic of Cyprus became a member of the European Union on May 1, 2004.
Cyprus has a population of 0.7878 million (Ministry of Labor, 2004). Ethnic diversity is reported as 77% Greek, 18% Turk, and 5% other. The population distribution by age is 14 years or younger, 21% (79,701 females, 83,256 males); 15 to 64 years, 68% (260,846 females, 267,446 males); 65 years and over, 11% (50,118 females, 38,766 males). Economic affairs are dominated by the division of the country as a result of the 1974 Turkish invasion. Cyprus has an open free, market, service-based economy with some manufacturing. Cyprus’s accession as a full member of the European Union as of May 1, 2004, has been an important milestone in its recent economic development. The gross domestic product in 2004 was US$15.71 billion for the Republic of Cyprus, US$4.5 billion for North Cyprus, and US$20,300 and US$7,135 per capita, respectively. The service sector, including tourism, contributes 76% to the gross domestic product and employs 72% of the labor force. Industry and construction contribute 19% and employ 23% of the labor force.
During the 2003-2004 school year, 174,062 students were enrolled in schools: 25,674 were in pre-primary schools; 61,731 were in primary Greek community schools (Grades 1-6); 65,480 in secondary education (gymnasium Grades 1-3; lykeio Grades 3-6); 20,849 in public or private universities in Cyprus; and 17,631 were university students studying abroad (Statistical Service, 2004). There are three categories of nursery schools: public, community, and private. Public nursery schools are established by the government and are supported partly by government and partly by the communities or parents’ associations. Community nursery schools are nonprofit private schools supported by government subsidies or by parents’ associations. Private nursery schools are established and supported by the owners of the schools, on a profit basis. Both private and community nursery schools are registered and supervised by the Ministry of Education and Culture and also by the Department of Welfare Services.
The integration policy to serve students with special needs is a relatively recent innovation, introduced in 1992. Most students with special needs are served within the regular stream of education. During school year 2003-2004, 11 special education schools with 328 students operated in Cyprus. However, a total of 4,000 students receive special education services (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2004). Three hundred and ninety-six primary education teachers with various specialties (special education teachers, teachers for the deaf and the blind) work to support and meet the needs of children with disabilities. In secondary education (gymnasium and lyceum), 137 teachers offer services to children with special needs. Special services such as music therapy, work therapy, speech therapy, physiotherapy, and psychological support are also available to these students.
In Cyprus, education is provided through pre-primary, primary, secondary general, and secondary technical/vocational schools, special schools, the University of Cyprus, and tertiary non-university public and private educational institutions. Public schools are mainly financed by public funds; private schools are primarily funded from tuition. At the secondary level of education, private schools receive a small state subsidy, and in a few cases, foreign aid is provided through various organizations. Education at the primary level has been free and compulsory since 1962. Compulsory education begins at age 4 years 8 months and lasts until age 15. Formal school education is organized into three levels: pre-primary (ages 4 years 8 months-5 years 8 months); primary (ages 5 years 8 months-12 years); gymnasium (ages 12-15 years); and lyceum (ages 15-18 years). Schooling in the secondary level consists of two stages. Stage 1 (gymnasium) comprises the first three grades; Stage 2 (lyceum) comprises the last three grades leading toward a certificate (apolitirion). There are also evening gymnasia that enable young people and adults to complete their secondary education. Technical and vocational schools accept students at the second stage only, and each school has two departments, technical and vocational. Technical schools place an emphasis on theory and practice in science and technical skills, and vocational schools provide training for craftsmen and service trades.
The public education system in Cyprus is highly centralized. Head teachers and teachers are appointed, transferred, and promoted by the Educational Service Commission, an independent five-member body, appointed for a 6-year period by the president of the Republic. The preparation and enforcement of educational laws and legislation is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Culture. Syllabi, curricula, and textbooks are also the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. During the 2003-2004 school year, 1,233 full-time schools, at all levels of education, were operating in the government-controlled areas with 174,062 students and 14,290 teachers, thus giving a student-to-teacher ratio of 12.2 to 1 (Statistical Service, 2004). The average class size for public primary education is 24.7; for public secondary education, it is 25. The law specifies that all primary education grades have a minimum of 25 and a maximum of 30 students per class. In secondary education, the maximum number of students per class is also 30 (with the exception of the third grade in the lyceum, where the maximum number of students per class is 25). The Ministry of Education and Culture is now making initiatives to decrease the number of students per class in primary as well as in secondary schools. In small schools at the primary level, several classes can be grouped together. According to law (Public Law for the Education and Training of Children With Special Needs, 1999), when a student with special needs is in a classroom, the average number of students can be lower.
The number of pre-primary schools increased from 638 (with 25,298 children) in 2002-2003 to 657 (with 25,674 children) in 2003-2004. Primary school enrollments decreased from 62,868 in 2002-2003 to 61,731 in 2003-2004. Of the total primary school population, 69% attended schools in towns and suburbs, and the remaining 31% attended rural schools (Statistical Service, 2004). During the school year 2003-2004, enrollments in secondary education increased to 65,480 from 64,711 in the previous year. Of the secondary school population, 87% were enrolled in public schools and the remaining 13% in private schools (Statistical Service, 2004). More than 50% of Cypriot high school graduates sought university education in other countries, with Greece, the United Kingdom, and the United States being the most popular destinations. During the academic year 2003-2004, 17,631 Cypriot university students were studying abroad. Since 1992, the newly established University of Cyprus has added to the total student population by about 2,500.
The University of Cyprus currently offers bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral programs in most major disciplines. A number of private colleges offer mostly technical diplomas but also bachelor’s programs, mostly in association with British universities.
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
Immediately after the establishment of the Cyprus Republic in 1960, psychology positions were included in two Ministries: the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Health. Two educational psychologists (Stelios Georgiades and Antonis Papaioannou) were appointed to develop a plan of action. The history of school psychology in Cyprus is closely related to that of vocational counseling. From 1974 until 1989, educational psychologists offered their services through the Counseling and Career Education Service in the Ministry of Education (Tziogouros, 1999). Within a few years, four more educational psychologists were appointed to join the service, and in 1989, the personnel numbered six. In 1995, the Educational Psychology Services Section was established in the Ministry of Education and Culture, and it has functioned as an independent body with a distinct identity ever since, now counting 35 full-time members who share the responsibility for all public schools in Cyprus (Papadopoulos, 2002).
The origins of the educational psychology practices in Cyprus can be traced to the foundation of the Cyprus Psychological Association (1980), as well as to the first professional efforts made by psychologists teaching in the Department of Educational Studies at the newly founded (1992) University of Cyprus (Papadopoulos, 2002). When the Cyprus Psychological Association was established in 1980, its membership counted 21, because young graduates started returning from their studies abroad at that time. In 2005, the Association had 185 members, an indication that psychology as a field and as a profession has enjoyed a remarkable increase in popularity in recent years (Georgiou, 1996).
Most school psychologists in Cyprus are employed by the government and work in public schools. The Educational Psychology Service is an interdepartmental service answerable to the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Education and Culture. Few psychologists work in private schools or in special schools. The aim of the service is the application of psychology and basic psychological principles to the educational system (pre-primary, primary, secondary, and technical education). The goal is to provide an environment within the school system that will promote mental health and academic enrichment and facilitate learning for all students according to their individual needs and abilities. The Educational Psychology Service has three district offices in the towns of Larnaca, Limassol, and Nicosia. Every school in Cyprus can consult the Educational Psychological Service for support and assistance.
The terms used in job descriptions and qualification standards are educational psychologist and educational psychology services. Most educational psychologists in Cyprus are female, between the ages of 25 and 58 (Jimerson et al., 2004). Educational psychologists must be qualified at the master’s-degree level (clinical, school, or educational psychology). Before 1992, in the absence of a local university, Cypriots traveled abroad to obtain higher education degrees. Thus, all educational psychologists in the Educational Psychological Service have a degree from abroad. The great majority of them were trained in Europe and the United States. All of the educational psychologists are fluent in two or more languages (Jimerson et al., 2004). The ratio of school psychologists to students is 1 to 5,000 on average (Jimerson et al., 2004). Salaries are influenced by years of experience. On average, a school psychologist earns about 1,745 euros monthly (20,940 euros annually). Most school psychologists receive pay equal to that of teachers and other professionals who work in the schools.
Educational psychologists in Cyprus perform a variety of activities. Responses from educational psychologists on the International School Psychology Survey (Jimerson et al., 2004) indicate that the greatest amount of time is split between administrative responsibilities and psychoeducational evaluations. Although recent developments with regard to school psychology practices in the unified educational system look promising, there is still a lot to be done. A unified educational system will address the needs of a diverse student population. A fundamental principle of the system should be that all children can learn, and it will therefore provide students with opportunities to succeed academically as well as emotionally. In a unified educational system, educational psychologists will have a primary role in the decision-making process, by designing and implementing preventive programs and interventions in the schools and by developing and influencing educational policy and practice, especially regarding services for students with disabilities.
Decentralization of services in the Ministry of Education and Culture needs to take place, in an attempt to make Educational Psychology Service more flexible and available to those in the school system. There is still a great demand for human resources and expertise within the field of school psychology. In-service training courses are provided in several circumstances and by various trainers. However, there is still more to be done in the area of continuing education and training. Opportunities for advancement in Educational Psychology Services are minimal, but job stability is quite high.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
The Cyprus Psychological Association (i.e., the Union) does much to enhance the interests of psychology and all its branches, including school psychology. The Union was established in 1980 with 21 members. Currently, about 185 psychologists are members. Many local psychologists are members of professional associations in the country in which they studied and participate in conferences overseas. Most of the school psychologists are also members of international associations. Before 1995, in the absence of a law consolidating the psychology profession, the Cyprus Psychological Association played the role of the “gatekeeper” in the field of professional psychology. Its membership was restricted to graduates of psychology programs (Georgiou, 1996). According to the Association’s constitution, the following qualifications were necessary for membership in the Association: (a) a university degree with Psychology as the major subject (the competent authorities of the country where the student obtained the degree must accredit the degree) and (b) a postgraduate degree in psychology obtained from a university or another institution considered equivalent to a university by the competent authorities of the country where the student studied. The aims of the Cyprus Psychological Association are to support and promote the practice of psychology as a profession and as a field and to serve the interests of its members. Furthermore, the Association aims to improve and enhance mental health. Since its establishment, the Association invests in the training and continuing education of its members through seminars, colloquia, and international events.
The practice of psychologists also follows the standards established by many European countries. In 1995, the Public Law for the Consolidation of Professional Psychology was passed. It requires the following qualifications of professional psychologists: (a) a degree in psychology and (b) 3 years of postgraduate studies in an area of professional psychology, including at least 1,500 hours of supervised training. The activities of the Cyprus Psychological Association, the University of Cyprus, and the Educational Psychology Service of the Ministry of Education promote the formulation of the roles and functions of educational psychologists and enhance the quality of services being provided today. The establishment of educational psychology training programs at the University of Cyprus in 1999-2000 is an attempt to improve the quality of services offered by educational psychologists.
The 1999 enactment of the Public Law for the Education and Training of Children With Special Needs could be considered one of the most significant events influencing the work of educational psychologists. The law, which extended and revised the Education Act of 1979, directs the state to develop and implement educational Psychology programs in a unified educational system that refers to the needs of all students with and without disabilities. Inclusion became a policy of the state, and the law makes it mandatory for all children with handicaps in Cyprus to receive a free and appropriate education in the least restrictive environment. Educational psychologists then became instrumental in assessing the needs of students with disabilities, recommending the most appropriate school setting and evaluating individualized educational programs. The educational psychologist assumes a central role and responsibility in both assessment and diagnosis as well as in the decision-making process.
According to the job descriptions and qualification standards, educational psychologists’ main activities include individual consultation and assessment of students, consultation and counseling with teachers or parents, design and implementation of intervention programs within the school system, and development and design of pedagogical research studies. Professional standards for educational psychologists are described in the law that governs credentialing and licensing of psychologists (Public Law for the Consolidation of Professional Psychology, 2004). Thus, no one can practice professional Psychology (including educational psychology) without fulfilling the criteria required by the law. School psychologists report belonging to a variety of different professional organizations. Therefore, they follow the guidelines and principles of organizations or associations in which they are members. The Cyprus Psychological Association has also developed ethical issues and standards (1982) that exemplify the profession’s values and principles.
Preparation of School Psychologists
Psychology is taught at the University of Cyprus (undergraduate and graduate levels) and at several private institutions of higher education. In January 2000, the Cyprus Council for the Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications started offering its services by examining applications for degree recognition. The Council operates under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Culture. In 2004, the educational evaluation-accreditation process was continued by the Council of Educational Evaluation-Accreditation, which evaluates programs of study at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The University of Cyprus offers the only accredited program of study in psychology. The newly established Department of Psychology at the University of Cyprus has approximately 100 undergraduate psychology majors and 25 graduate students. The program offers degrees in social/clinical psychology and educational/developmental psychology at the undergraduate level; educational psychology at the master’s level; and cognitive, developmental, and educational psychology at the doctoral level. The aim of the program in educational psychology is to provide students with a strong theoretical background in the areas of cognitive, developmental, and school psychology.
The first degree in psychology requires the completion of 134 credit hours. The study level consists of 33 compulsory courses of introduction to psychology. Then, a student can choose from three components: cognitive, social-clinical, or educational-developmental Psychology (57 elective credit hours and 18 credit hours). Additionally, 14 credit hours of subculture and 12 credit hours of education courses are required. The program of psychology at the graduate level requires the completion of 120 credit hours, including 40 credit hours of supervised training. Nominal duration of the curriculum is 2 years. The master of educational psychology curriculum is designed to provide students with a strong theoretical background, and at the same time, prepare them for the practice of professional educational psychology. About five openings for postgraduate students are announced each year. The Ph.D. program is based on the general framework of postgraduate programs in the Department of Psychology. The program leading to a Ph.D. for students who already possess a master’s diploma requires the completion of 15 credit hours of specialization courses. Additionally, students are required to perform successfully on a comprehensive examination, submit and successfully defend a research proposal, and complete a doctoral dissertation. Through addressing the training standards described in the previous section, programs at the University of Cyprus emphasize core academic knowledge of psychology, assessment procedures, and intervention strategies. Interpersonal skills (e.g., establishing trust and rapport, listening and communication skills) are emphasized throughout the program. Statistical design and research methods are also important aspects of the program. The ethical parameters, ethics codes, rules, and regulations governing the practice of psychology are another significant part of the program.
The graduate program in educational psychology offered by the University of Cyprus, the only accredited program of study in Cyprus, is a newly developed program. As a result, there are no educational psychologists currently trained in Cyprus. In 2005, 25 educational psychology students were in the program in Cyprus; these students will graduate in 2006.
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
School psychology services are designed to support school personnel and parents to enhance academic adaptive and social skills for students. The work of the Educational Psychology Service at the Ministry of Education and Culture consists mainly of two broad sectors: individual referrals and program development and implementation within the school system. The school psychologist plays a primary role in the identification, assessment, diagnosis, and evaluation process. Referrals to the service can be made by schools or by parents. Students are referred for evaluation and assessment, for various problems, educational difficulties, emotional or physical problems, and special needs. Consultation with educators and parents follows an assessment and diagnostic procedure. In recent years, there has been a noticeable shift toward the development and implementation of programs that are preventive, as well as therapeutic, within the schools. These programs last at least one academic year, and activities involve the educational psychologist, educators, and school administrators as well as the parents. Through these programs, a greater number of students can be served and mental health can be promoted for the school population in general.
In addition to the two sectors discussed previously, educational psychologists are constantly involved in research programs in the field of educational psychology. They cooperate with social groups and institutions within the community to enhance learning through seminars, discussions, and studies. The work of school psychologists can be briefly described by the following:
Individual referrals. A child can be referred to the service by the school, the parent, or other professionals. The educational psychologist needs informed consent from a parent or legal guardian to assess a child and give a written report. Diagnosis and recommendations for the school or the parents are included in the report. Individual or group counseling and consultation are provided by the service. Consultation takes many forms (with educators, school personnel, other professionals, family members, and the community).
Testing and assessment. A child needs to be assessed before he or she can be eligible for special education services within the school system. An educational psychologist has a major role in the assessment process. A significant time load is devoted to assessment techniques (interviewing, observation, testing). A multiprofessional team evaluates a child and various techniques are used for assessment. The Educational Psychology Service most often uses the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III (Greek version) to assess the intellectual abilities of students. Additionally, clinical observation and interviewing, as well as informal curriculum-based assessment and checklists, are used to assess achievement, behavioral, or personality difficulties. A list of other tests to assess personality, social adjustment, and skills are also used but those are not yet standardized to the population of Cyprus. Some attempts are now being made by the Service in cooperation with the University of Cyprus to standardize more tests to the Cypriot population and develop a library of tests to be used by educational psychologists. There are no standardized attainment tests for use by educational psychologists, and thus most of the educational psychologists rely on informal assessment and clinical interviews and observations.
Organizational and program development services. The Service is investing a lot of time in the development and implementation of preventive, as well as intervention, programs in the schools. These programs are developed for both primary and secondary schools and usually focus on dependency problems, school violence, self-esteem, and crisis intervention.
Supervision. There is a great need for supervision services, because no formal supervision is currently offered to the educational psychology service.
Other activities. The service is involved in a number of research programs (e.g., drug abuse, early reading difficulties). Also, educational psychologists assist school staff by providing training for teachers and other professional staff and participating or assisting in program evaluation and research activities. Educational psychologists work in conjunction with the schools in communicating with parents, so they arrange parent conferences or workshops to discuss important issues regarding students.
Individual educational psychologists provide these services in varying degrees. In Cyprus, the educational psychologist is seen to be the primary professional, in collaboration with families and regular classroom teachers, to help children achieve their full learning potential. Coordination, planning, and administration of educational programs are also applied in the schools, with the educational psychologist having the primary role in this implementation and evaluation. Few school psychologists in Cyprus, employed by the government, are based in special schools. These individuals devote all of their time to students with special needs (behavior and emotional problems, mental retardation, physical problems).
A recent study provides data on the roles and functions of psychologists working with children and families in various settings. Commissioned by the International School Psychology Association’s Research Committee, researchers compared the training, roles, and responsibilities of school psychologists in different countries (Jimerson et al., 2004). The sample in Cyprus included 50 psychologists employed in educational settings. According to the psychologists’ report, they devoted 34% of their time to administrative responsibilities, 23% to psychoeducational evaluations, 15% to consultation with parents/families, 14% to counseling students, 14% to consultation with teachers and staff, 8% to providing direct interventions, 8% to conducting staff training and in-service programs, and 6% to providing primary prevention programs. In addition, the International School Psychology Survey also revealed that, ideally, the specific sample of psychologists working in educational settings would prefer the following roles/responsibilities/activities (cited in rank order): (1) providing primary prevention programs, (2) consulting with teachers and staff, (3) conducting staff training and in-service/education programs, (4) consulting with parents/families, (5) counseling students, (6) performing psycho-educational evaluations, (7) providing direct interventions, and (8) completing administrative responsibilities (Jimerson et al., 2004).
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
Although recent developments with regard to educational psychology practices in the educational system of Cyprus look promising, there is an increased demand for human resources and funding. Financial constraints affect decisions made entirely by government bodies, and the centralization of the delivery of services in the school system make the whole process very slow. Lack of money to properly fund services is an external threat to service delivery and is an obstacle to proper intervention, program development, and implementation in the school system. There is a public demand for more educational psychologists to be employed by the government. The ratio of 1 psychologist to 5,000 students is substantially higher than most of the European countries, making the work of an educational psychologist extremely difficult, considering the complexity of the job and the many diverse responsibilities. The role of an educational psychologist is still perceived as that of “support” personnel in Cyprus. The emphasis on the supportive nature of an educational psychologist’s role diminishes the importance and value placed on the rest of the work provided by the service. Educational psychologists are perceived as providers of ancillary services to the instruction offered by teachers and the administration of principals (Papadopoulos, 2002). This emphasis on support services tends to shift attention from the other more diverse roles of educational psychologists, who should have an essential role in the educational system. They can contribute toward change and become facilitators of learning for all children. Through ongoing assessment of the needs of children and guiding school personnel and parents, educational psychologists can promote mental health within the school system. Educational psychologists can assist school personnel and administrators in their efforts to provide quality services to all students.
The lack of research and evaluation has important implications in the delivery of psychological services. Research is perceived by educational psychologists to be very relevant to professional practice. There is a need for theory-driven research specifically deriving from local experiences. The cooperation of the Educational Psychology Service with the Department of Psychology of the University of Cyprus can provide a solid starting point for more research studies to be designed. Test development and standardization of testing materials on the population of Cyprus is also an aspect that needs to be further studied.
There is also a need for more theory-based interventions that address the needs of the local population of students. Seventy-three percent of educational psychologists indicated that the lack of research and evaluation was a challenge that jeopardizes the quality of service delivery (Jimerson et al., 2004). In an attempt to develop interventions based on a theoretical background, the Department of Psychology in the University of Cyprus cooperates with the Educational Psychology Service on a regular basis. Focusing on early intervention and prevention, Papadopoulos, Das, Parrila, and Kirby (2002) have aimed to develop and test the short- and long-term efficacy of a cognitive intervention program for the remediation of early reading difficulties. The overall findings of these studies suggest that theory-based early remediation may positively influence reading performance. The long-term efficacy of these cognitive interventions is evaluated and studied by the Educational Psychology Service and the University of Cyprus. It is imperative that more studies and research programs be developed and thus more effective interventions be designed and applied within the school system.
Educational psychologists are responsible for many tasks and various assignments. Supervision services need to be made available to educational psychologists due to the difficult, complex, and emotional nature of their job. In addition, lack of professional supervision is an aspect that increases stress among educational psychologists and does not promote professional advancement. Educational psychologists in Cyprus report professional burnout (82%) due to the nature of their work and the lack of supervision (64%) as challenges that jeopardize the quality of service delivery (Jimerson et al., 2004).
Important areas for future research include multicultural schools, evaluation of the unified educational system, school violence, school failure and dropout, early interventions, and learning difficulties. There is a need for further education and in-service training in the field of educational psychology. Additional financial resources need to be invested by the government to provide continuing professional development and expertise. The profession of school psychology is constantly developing, so that new techniques of psychological assessment and interventions are evolving. There is a growing need for educational psychologists to undertake further training and update their professional knowledge.