Donald H Saklofske, Vicki L Schwean, Gina L Harrison, Juanita Mureika. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Canada is a country with almost 33 million people, occupying the world’s third largest landmass (9,984,670 square kilometres), with the United States along its entire southern border and the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans to the east, west, and north, respectively. The landscape of Canada is varied and composed of mountains, prairies, desert, arctic tundra, glaciers, valleys, foothills, rivers, and lakes. It contains 10 provinces and 3 territories. Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867, while retaining ties to the British crown. Canada maintains a system of government based on English common law except in Quebec, where the civil law system is based on French law. Economically and technologically, Canada has developed in parallel with the United States. Health care, education, and language issues dominate the current political and social challenges. Most Canadians trace their lineage to British (28%), French (23%), other European (15%), and Aboriginal or Indigenous (2%) descent (Canadian Tourism Commission, 2004). The official languages of Canada are English and French, with 59% of the population speaking English and 23% speaking French. A number of native (aboriginal) languages are spoken throughout the country (Central Intelligence Agency, n.d.; Statistics Canada, 2001).
Annual economic growth is projected at 3%. The gross domestic product is US$774 billion dollars. The primary sectors are service (74%), manufacturing (15%), construction (5%), and agricultural (3%). The major products and industries consist of processed and unprocessed minerals, food products, wood and paper products, transportation equipment, chemicals, fish products, petroleum, and natural gas (Canadian Tourism Commission, 2004). According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, in 1999, Canada ranked first among G-7 countries (i.e., Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United States) with respect to the percentage of funding allocated to education. In 2001, Canada spent 15% of its total expenditure on education (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003).
Approximately 5 million children currently attend public schools in Canada (Communications Canada, Public Works & Government Services Canada, 2002). Due to a recent decline in birth rates, the population of children ages 5 to 13 is expected to drop by 14% between 2001 and 2011. A corresponding drop is expected in the population ages 14 to 18 years between 2006 and 2016. As a result, all jurisdictions will likely face some periods of decline in school-age children between 2001 and 2026, although the magnitude and timing of decline will vary considerably, due to a higher birth rate among aboriginal communities and national and international migration patterns. Some areas of Canada (e.g., British Columbia and Ontario) could stabilise their school-age population to reflect the enrolment rates in 1991. Other Canadian provinces (e.g., the Atlantic provinces) could have lower school-age populations than the enrolment rates during 1991 (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). The home environment for children in the Canadian school system is also changing. In 2001, children were less likely to live in two-parent homes than children in 1991. Similarly, in 2001, there were higher proportions of children living in homes where one or both parents worked outside of the home than in 1991 (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003).
Since 1990, there has been an influx of immigrants to Canada that has profoundly impacted the ethnic, linguistic, and cultural climate of Canadian schools. Canada now boasts more than 200 different ethnic origins, as reflected in the 2001 census, with visible minorities comprising more than 13% of the population. This is particularly evident in major metropolitan areas such as Toronto, Calgary, and Vancouver (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003).
Canada does not have a federal education system. The Constitution granted the responsibility for education to each province and territory. Thus, each system represents the particular cultural, regional, and historical climate. An elected minister in each province is responsible to set standards, determine curricula, and designate educational grants (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). By law, children are required to attend school from the age of 6 or 7 years until the age of 15 or 16. In most jurisdictions, 95% of 5-year-olds were attending school in 2000–2001 (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). Private or separate schools are available as alternatives to the public school system. In 1995, Roman Catholic separate schools attracted approximately one fourth of the public school system enrolment. Independent schools offer a variety of religious, language, and academic curriculum options and service a quarter of a million students (Communications Canada, Public Works & Government Services Canada, 2002).
From 1995 to 2000, the secondary school graduation rates rose from 76% to 78%. Graduation rates for females (83%) are higher than graduation rates for males (73%). The number of students who withdrew from school prior to graduating fell from 18% in 1991 to 12% in 1999. The higher the parental education level, the more likely a student will graduate from high school (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003).
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
It has been suggested that school psychology is a broad form of child psychology, because it encompasses areas of family, education, development, and behaviour as they appear in all aspects of a child’s life. However, having roots in two disciplines, education and psychology, as well as the variability of resources and needs among the provinces and territories, has posed challenges to the development of school psychology as an autonomous discipline. School psychology in Canada traces its roots to the first decade of the 20th century. Initially, psychologists working with school-age children performed many of the tasks now associated with school psychologists, although they were not employed in the schools. For example, in the 1920s, specialists in Manitoba were employed to test and conduct educational measurements. In the 1940s, mental health professionals affiliated with Winnipeg, Manitoba’s Health Department, the school board, and child guidance centres worked in collaboration to address the needs of students (Oakland, Faulkner, & Annan, 2002).
From the 1950s to the 1970s, psychologists were found more frequently working in the schools, although often from a mental health or clinical perspective. In Alberta, psychologists were based in central offices and viewed as itinerant resources to the school system (Janzen & Carter, 2001). Often, roles were shared with guidance counsellors, teachers, or others within the educational system, because school Psychology training programs were not yet formalised (Saklofske et al., 2000). During the 1970s, school psychology became more widely recognised as a specialised area of psychology. Graduate training programs were established in Canadian universities, at the doctoral level at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, and at the master’s level in the educational psychology departments at Memorial University, the University of Manitoba, the Universities of Alberta in Edmonton and Calgary, and McGill University. The passage of Public Law 94–142 in the United States in 1976 indirectly influenced educational practices in Canada. Hence, with wider training opportunities available and increasing demand for identification of students with exceptional learning needs, school psychologists became more visible within school systems, particularly in metropolitan regions, primarily filling a role of testing students to determine eligibility for placement and services in special classes.
It was not until the 1980s, however, that Canadian school psychologists began to firmly establish their role at the provincial and national levels, both professionally and in the education system (Oakland et al., 2002). The passage of the Canadian Human Rights Act in 1977 and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982 led to more inclusive practices in schools, more special classes and services for students, and, as a result, more need to determine eligibility for services and special class placement. There was also a need for teacher support in teaching students with behavioural, emotional, and learning differences, who were now being included in the regular school system.
At a professional level, some provincial regulatory organisations outlined the registration requirements for school psychologists within the respective provinces (e.g., Alberta, Nova Scotia). Similarly, school psychology interest groups began to be formed as adjuncts to some provincial psychological associations (e.g., British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and New Brunswick). The Canadian Association of School Psychologists was formed in the early 1980s to address the needs, concerns, and interests of Canadian school psychologists and advocate for the goals of school psychologists on both national and international levels. These goals continue to be achieved through the publication of the Canadian Journal of School Psychology and a joint newsletter in collaboration with the Psychologists in Education section of the Canadian Psychological Association; the sponsoring of workshops, conferences, and continuing education activities; and maintaining a working relationship with both provincial and national psychology organisations.
In recent years, the Canadian Psychological Association has actively promoted school psychology as a unique and important form of psychological practice though the development of documents, position papers, and policy documents supporting the role of psychologists in Canadian schools (e.g., Canadian Psychological Association, 2004; French & Mureika, 2002). In 2004, the Canadian Psychological Association approved specific procedures for accrediting programs in school psychology and currently is revising a document adopted from New Brunswick defining professional practice guidelines to reflect national practice (New Brunswick Department of Education, 2001).
Although there is no school psychology specialty designation described by regulatory bodies in Canada, the term school psychologist is most often used to describe those working in the profession. In Newfoundland and Labrador, perhaps as a result of strong ties to the United Kingdom, authorities continue to use the title “educational psychologist” (Martin, 2001). In some provinces, for example, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, school psychologists are also licenced teachers; however, this requirement is not the norm in Canada. As well, in some provinces, school psychologists must be licenced with their regulatory body as psychologists (e.g., New Brunswick, Saskatchewan, Alberta), while in other provinces, government employees, including school psychologists, are exempted under the provincial licencing acts (e.g., Manitoba). There is wide variability in the credentialing of psychologists across the provinces and territories of Canada. Current and specific information related to the practice of psychology in each of the provinces and territories can be found on the Web site of the Canadian Psychological Association (http://www.cpa.ca).
The ratio of students to school psychologists varies widely across the country and within individual provinces. For example, in some areas of Ontario, the ratio of psychologists to students is as low as 1 to 1,700 and as high as 1 to 12,000 (Carney, 2001). In several provinces, including Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Saskatchewan, it is not uncommon for one school psychologist to service between 3,000 and 5,000 students (Hann, 2001; Martin, 2001; Mureika, 2001; Saklofske & Grainger, 2001). The smallest ratio of school psychologists to students (1:1,600) was reported in Manitoba (Bartell, 2001).
Both the urban and rural environments in which school psychologists work present certain advantages and disadvantages. Saklofske and Grainger (2001) explained that within Saskatchewan, cities offer more comprehensive programs for students with special needs and offer greater access to special services; however, the psychologists serve a greater number of students. In some smaller cities and towns, there are fewer students per school psychologist; however, commuting distances among schools in these more rural areas are much greater.
In some rural areas of Canada, there are significant shortages of school psychologists (Bartell, 2001; Blakely & Wells, 2001). In addition, some aboriginal communities are reported to be underserved. Within the next 10 years, the demand for school psychology services can be expected to continue to exceed the supply in some provinces (Bartell, 2001). As well, it can be challenging to recruit and retain psychologists in some provinces, due to extensive travel requirements, high union and professional fees, heavy caseloads, and scarce professional development opportunities.
Salaries for school psychologists vary across the provinces; however, most public service positions are competitive with other professionals at the same education and experience levels (e.g., teachers, speech/language pathologists) in the same province. The average hourly wage for public service psychologists in Canada is estimated at $27.12 Canadian dollars (Can$), in contrast to the average hourly rate over all professions of Can$16.91 (Government of Canada, 2003). By way of comparison, in British Columbia, the pay scale for school psychologists, with a minimum master’s degree, is on par with teachers and ranges from about Can$42,000 to Can$68,000 per year after 10 years experience. On the east coast, New Brunswick school psychologists with a master’s or doctoral degree working under supervision for licencing requirements (Psychometrist III) may start at about Can$40,000, whereas a Psychologist II (supervisory position) currently earns up to Can$62,000 per year. Much higher salaries are paid in larger urban centres such as Toronto, where psychologists with a master’s degree may earn between Can$46,000 and Can$77,000 and psychologists with a doctoral degree and 10 or more years experience may earn more than Can$80,000.
At present, the role of the school psychologist in Canada is slowly evolving from one of primarily testing and placement of students with special needs to a broader role of consultant to teachers to support the needs of all students in school (Mureika, Falconer, & Howard, 2004). Although this role change for school psychologists was suggested more than a decade ago (Janzen, Paterson, & Paterson, 1993), it remains a point of contention and struggle among school psychologists, their employers, and stakeholder groups, such as parents, physicians, and disability groups, and so the progression has been slow but gradual. It will be interesting to watch how the profession develops in the next decade, given the challenges it is sure to face.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
The numerous organisations at both the national and provincial levels serving the interests of school psychology attest to the presence of a strong professional identity in Canada. At the national level, the Canadian Association of School Psychologists, founded just over 20 years ago, represents the national “voice” of school psychologists. The Canadian Association of School Psychologists’ aims include facilitating communication between associations at the provincial and territorial levels, advocacy and advancement of the profession of school psychology, and serving as a source of information on the delivery of psychology in the schools to members and the general public. Members are employed or trained as school psychologists, university faculty, and students training to become school psychologists. Likewise, the Canadian Psychological Association has a section for psychologists in education, and many hold dual membership with the Canadian Association of School Psychologists.
There are strong provincial organisations that are aimed at connecting professionals, advancing the practice of psychology in the schools, and serving as a united voice in the advancement of the profession by communicating with provincial psychology regulatory bodies and departments of education. Most of the organisations have annual conferences or meetings affording participants opportunities for professional development and collegiality. A difference between regions is the presence of organisations specific to school psychology in some cases, special sections within the broader provincial psychological association in other regions, or affiliation with the general provincial psychological association alone in others. The varying degrees of specificity, however, do not reflect professional interest or commitment; rather, these differences reflect more the vast physical geography of Canada, the heterogeneity of instructional contexts (e.g., from small, mul-tiage remote schools in the north, to large, multiracial urban classrooms in Canadian cities), and the diversity in the population of students and, thus, school psychologists represented therein. Moreover, because the general practice of psychology, and school psychology in particular, is governed from the provincial levels by ministries of health or education, there is considerable variability in the requirements for licensure impacting professional affiliation. Indeed, the activities within the organisations and the services afforded to members and the general public can be quite diverse.
For example, the British Columbia Association of School Psychologists is the only provincial organisation that provides certification for school psychologists. British Columbia Association of School Psychologists members are “certified” school psychologists and must pass stringent professional training criteria that parallel the standards set forth by the National Association of School Psychologists in the United States, including an acceptable score on the school psychology exam and required practicum hours working under the supervision of a school psychologist (Benson, 2001). Certification, however, reflects a standard of practice in school psychology, and the association does not have regulatory control over its members. Other provincial organisations specific to school psychology are the Saskatchewan Educational Psychology Association (the title “educational psychologist” is used for “school psychologist” in Saskatchewan, as it also is in Newfoundland), the Manitoba Association of School Psychologists, the Quebec Association of School Psychologists, and the New Brunswick Association of Psychologists and Psychometrists in the Schools.
In other provinces, school psychologists may be affiliated with special sections within broader provincial psychological associations. For example, Ontario school psychologists are represented by the Section of Psychologists in Education of the Ontario Psychological Association, as well as the Association of Chief Psychologists with Ontario School Boards (Carney, 2001). Similarly, the Association of Psychologists of Nova Scotia has a school psychology committee serving the interests of school psychologists in that province. Finally, the Psychologists’ Association of Alberta, the Psychological Association of Prince Edward Island, and the Association of Newfoundland Psychologists provide school psychologists in those provinces with professional affiliation with psychology generally.
Within the past 10 years, an evolution has occurred in the training and standards associated with the practice of psychology in provincial and territorial schools. As a result, in many regions of Canada (i.e., Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Northwest Territories, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland), school psychological services are provided by “psychologists” or “psychological associates,” registered at either the master’s or doctoral level with the provincial college of psychologists charged with regulating the practice and licencing of psychological professionals. These regulations are set forth under the mandates of the different provincial ministries of health. A driving force behind the regulation of the profession involves the school psychologists’ critical practices of assessment, identification, and diagnosis of disorders affecting learning and instruction. The recognition of school psychologists as “psychological” professionals serves to regulate who can provide such diagnostic services and who is qualified to communicate a diagnosis. For example, in Ontario, the act of reporting a diagnosis, including that of a learning disability, is a “controlled act” undertaken only by those professionals licenced by the Ontario Psychological Association (Carney, 2001). Saskatchewan also recognises “Authorised Practice,” where only persons meeting the standards set forth by the Saskatchewan College of Psychologists may interpret assessment information and communicate a diagnosis (Saklofske & Grainger, 2001). In fact, in most cases, the use of the title “psychologist” is restricted only to professionals registered with the provincial psychological licencing boards.
In other provinces, school psychologists are exempt from registration with the provincial psychological licencing boards, but they must meet criteria set forth by their respective ministries of education. For example, in British Columbia, school psychologists are exempt from registering with the British Columbia College of Psychologists as long as they are employed by a school district. The ministry of education sets its own standards for what qualifications school psychologists must possess, but they do not certify school psychologists. As previously mentioned, the British Columbia Association of School Psychologists provides certification; however, whether certification is a requirement of employment is left to the discretion of individual school districts across the province. Nevertheless, the British Columbia College of Psychologists recommends that school psychologists meet the standards for registration either as psychological associates (master’s-level preparation) or psychologists (doctoral level). This is a requirement if school psychologists are contracting out their services or are working in private practice; namely, if they are not employed by a school district. Alternatively, Manitoba has a unique position in Canada. It is the only province where the certification of school psychologists occurs at the provincial ministry of education level (the Manitoba Education and Training Department). According to Bartell (2001), the standards for certification are high in that province, with provisional certification being awarded first, followed by full certification after a period of supervised practice within the schools.
The regulation of the “psychological” practice of assessment, identification, and diagnosis in the schools has limited who can conduct school psychological work and recognises the unique contribution of school psychologists beyond educational practitioners such as the classroom or special education teachers. However, Blakely and Wells (2001) recently described how such regulation in the Northwest Territories has served to significantly restrict the delivery of school psychological services in that region. These restrictions are mainly due to the fact that all psychologists registered in that region are trained according to standards for clinical psychology. There are no declared competencies or specialty titles. As a result, psychologists may not have the specialised skills of a school psychologist, and schools do not hire their own school psychologists. As a result, school psychology activities may be undertaken by other school professionals such as classroom teachers and special education teachers. This is one reason why the professional organisations within the provinces serve an integral role in communicating to regulatory bodies about the special training and skills school psychologists, as opposed to clinical psychologists, possess.
Across the country, all Canadian provinces have adopted a policy of inclusion in the education of students with special educational needs (Hutchinson, 2002). Central to this policy is the social notion of inclusion in every aspect of life (including education) for all persons. The inclusion philosophy parallels similar movements in the United States and reflects the notions of equality and social justice as described in Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms. As a result, all children and youth in Canadian schools are, for the most part, educated in the general classroom with varying degrees of supports, special services, and specialised contexts for students with exceptionalities, depending on provincial educational mandates and individual students’ needs.
Access to specialised educational resources within schools across the country, however, is invariably tied to provincial educational funding allocations. The onus rests, for the most part, on schools to gain access to these resources through the identification (i.e., diagnosis) of students with exceptional needs. The role of the school psychologist as diagnostician has therefore increased in many provinces. However, Mureika (2001) has noted the situation in New Brunswick, where there is increased demand for school psychological services, but the number of school psychologists has not increased. Ironically, it has been the greater emphasis on identification and assessment of students with special educational needs within an inclusive context that has prompted many school psychologists across the country to advocate for the expanded role of the school psychologist from mere assessor to collaborative consultant within a problem identification framework. Central to this expanded role is the early screening for learning and behaviour difficulties, prereferral intervention, and collaborative consultation through multidisciplinary teams. All of these activities are endorsed by the National Association of School Psychologists in the United States and similarly endorsed by the national and provincial school psychology organisations across Canada. As such, Canadian school psychologists are more likely today than in the past to assist, in varying degrees, in the development, implementation, and monitoring of individualised educational programs for students with exceptional needs. Indeed, as school psychologists continue to exercise their professional expertise in psychological assessment and diagnosis and students’ educational outcomes within inclusive settings are inextricably linked to the efficacy of these diagnostic activities, there are greater opportunities today for situating assessment within collaborative, solution-focused, strength-based, multidisciplinary models of service delivery.
In spite of its small population relative to the United States, Canada is fortunate to have some outstanding national journals of interest to school psychologists. In particular, the peer-reviewed Canadian Journal of School Psychology publishes current research of interest to school psychologists as well as articles reflecting current best practices in the profession. Exceptionality Education Canada also provides peer-reviewed research and current educational practices within the context of Canadian special education. Other professional journals that may publish articles of interest and relevance to school psychologists include the Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, the McGill Journal of Education, and the Canadian Journal of Education. As previously mentioned, the various provincial school psychology organisations disseminate their own newsletters to their members, and the Canadian Association of School Psychologists and the Canadian Psychological Association publish a joint newsletter on a more casual basis.
Preparation of School Psychologists
There are relatively few programs in Canada that prepare school psychologists (Saklofske, 1996). Currently, there are only five programs granting a Ph.D. in school psychology (McGill University, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Alberta, University of Calgary, University of British Columbia), and only the first two of these programs are accredited with the American Psychological Association. The Canadian Psychological Association passed accreditation standards for Ph.D. programs in school psychology in June 2004, and it is expected that the future accreditation applications by Canadian programs will be directed to the Canadian Psychological Association. In addition to these five programs (which also grant master’s degrees), three additional programs offer programs that lead to a master’s degree in school psychology (Mount Saint Vincent University, University of Manitoba, University of Saskatchewan). We encourage readers to visit the Canadian Psychological Association Web site to read further on the accreditation criteria for school psychology programs as well as descriptions relating to the core competencies required of all psychologists.
It is difficult to report on the number of school psychology students who are admitted into, or graduate from, existing Canadian school psychology programs on an annual basis, as virtually all existing Canadian school psychology programs vary their admittance rates annually. Further, it is important to note that the specific degrees and professional credentials required to become a school psychologist in Canada vary from province to province. For example, the requirement for certification as a psychologist in several provinces is master’s-level preparation (e.g., in Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba). In other provinces, doctoral-level preparation is required (e.g., British Columbia). Further, in some provinces, a degree in education is either preferred, or alternatively, considered necessary to work in schools.
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
School psychologists work in schools and educational institutions (e.g., technical institutions, universities), but it is increasingly more common to see them employed in other settings (e.g., private practice, hospitals, industry) in Canada (Saklofske & Janzen, 1993). The past decade has witnessed slow but obvious changes to the traditional roles and practices of school psychologists. Fagan (1996) suggests that present-day roles and functions of Canadian school psychologists have been shaped by many different forces, including provincial and national education and psychology standards, school district demands, consumer response to the services provided, and the availability of training programs. Further, Canada is a geographically, culturally, and linguistically diverse country, which creates pressures for contextually sensitive and relevant school psychology services that focus on the promotion of wellness as well as addressing the problems of children, educators, and parents, and the larger community. Undoubtedly, the diversified training of school psychologists will benefit the profession of psychology as a whole, as well as promote the specialty of school psychology.
Studies of the practices of Canadian school psychologists (e.g., Dumont, 1989; Kaufman & Smith, 1998; Neudorf, 1989) suggest relative commonality. More traditional roles reflecting psychological and psychoeducational assessments, direct student service delivery models, and the development and implementation of dlinical and educational prescriptive programs are still widely adhered to in Canada. However, the alternative roles of consultation, program prevention and intervention, and parent and teacher training are increasing.
Canadian school psychologists recognise that this expanded role is more effective and appropriate in meeting the needs of students, parents, and teachers (Bartell, 1995). Depositions prepared by school psychologists when a large reduction of school psychologists was suggested in one province showed this variability in school psychology services. The role of diagnostician as a primary function was mentioned in all of the presentations to the board. Carney (1995) stressed the proactive, early intervention and prevention programming functions carried out by school psychologists. Beal and Service (1995) reinforced the role of school psychologists in assessment and diagnosis but also described the provision of therapy to students presenting with personal problems. Hamovich (1995) added that school psychologists provide crisis intervention as well as consultation to both teachers and parents. All depositions argued that school psychologists play an important role in the life of a school system by offering a wide range of services that include, but are not limited to, assessment, treatment, counselling, consultation, and program development (Beal & Service, 1995, p. 92). Cole and Siegel (1990) have described both current and projected roles of Canadian school psychologists using a two-dimensional grid system outlining the goals of service delivery (primary, secondary, tertiary) and the various recipients of school psychological services (e.g., school system, teachers, parents, students). This model is clearly relevant to the practice of school psychology in Canada today.
Psychological and psychoeducational assessments. Psychological and psychoeducational assessments conducted by Canadian school psychologists will vary depending on the presenting problem and the reason for the referral (e.g., to develop a program for a particular child). These assessments will often include standardised instruments, some of which have been developed in Canada and others which have been standardised and normed in Canada (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, fourth edition) to assess intellectual, educational, social, emotional, personality, and/or neuropsychological development. Other types of assessment procedures that are commonly employed include curriculum-based instructional assessments, dynamic assessment, functional behavioural assessment, and continuous performance appraisals. Psychological assessments not only include standardised tests but also interviews with parents and teachers and observations of classroom behaviour. The most often used individually administered standardised intelligence tests are the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence III, and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale III. Achievement is frequently assessed with the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II or the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement. The Behavioral Assessment System for Children and the Conners Rating Scales, along with the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment, are the more commonly used measures to assess behaviour. Many school psychologists also employ short questionnaires and rating scales that may be completed by the student, teacher, and/or parent as well as shorter instruments to assess adaptive behaviour and giftedness.
Direct and indirect services. Direct services to students are common for Canadian school psychologists. However, district policies and caseloads sometimes limit the amount of time a school psychologist can devote to direct services. Most often, outside of the assessment role, school psychologists work more directly with teachers, administrators, and other agencies. Indirect services, such as the development of individualised educational programs and teacher in-service workshops on trauma or on implementing classroom observation strategies, are a major part of the school psychologist’s role in today’s schools.
Referrals and consultations. School psychologists serve as referral agents to other community services (Carney, 1995). Multidisciplinary service delivery systems have resulted in consultation becoming a significant model for providing school psychology services to children and adolescents (Sladeczek & Heath, 1997). Consultation represents a cost-effective service and affords several additional benefits that are not usually associated with more traditional school psychology roles (e.g., assessment). Consultation allows for greater collaboration between the student’s home and school. Increasingly, schools, families, and communities are addressing systemwide problems, such as violence (e.g., bullying), which call for a broader service model and consideration of the well-being of all school-children.
Crisis intervention and crisis team management. Canadian school psychologists have become much more visible in crisis intervention and crisis team management. School violence, catastrophic accidents, and natural disasters require swift, immediate action and intervention. Estimates indicate that approximately 31% of Canadian immigrant children have previously lived in some form of unstable and poor conditions (Cole, 1998). Another role of the school psychologist in crisis situations is to support school staff and assist in the overall coordination of the crisis response. Using aggression as an example, primary intervention programs can target all students in a school and encourage prosocial behaviours and antiviolence beliefs. Secondary programs target at-risk students who are experiencing academic, social, and emotional difficulties that could lead to violence. Tertiary prevention programs focus on students who have a history of difficulty and may require specialised programs, such as anger management (Cole, 1998). Canadian school psychologists engage in program development and/or the evaluation of existing school-based programs ranging from substance abuse to bullying prevention. Another area of needed involvement is in the provision of services to preschool children as well as adult education.
Thus, although school psychologists will always be required for psychological and psychoeducational assessment, there is a strong movement toward these other roles. Above all, school psychologists must assume a leadership role in raising social policy issues and promoting effective educational and psychological programs, which will positively contribute to each student’s educational, social, and emotional development (Saklofske et al., 2000).
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
Current school psychology definition and practice in Canada are shaped by our history but also by external societal and consumer forces whose influences, in many ways, serve to promote the broadening of the scope of school psychology practice and the recruitment of school psychologists into the mainstream of schools and schooling (Saklofske et al., 2000). The roles and functions of school psychologists in Canada continue to evolve and change for many reasons (Bartell, 1996; Cole, 1996). The Canadian mosaic has been rapidly changing during the past several decades, and Canadian society is now even more ethnically and culturally diverse. The influx of new Canadians is in addition to the large number of children of Aboriginal and First Nations ancestry; as well, English and French language and culture, which are so much a part of Canada’s past, are a defining force in the present and future. Furthermore, school psychological services tend to be uneven across Canada’s provinces and territories, influenced by unique contextual circumstances, such as a relatively small population spread over a vast territorial expanse and differences in socioeconomic and political factors. These factors require a dynamic school psychology that is contextually sensitive and relevant and that continues to evolve within the discipline and practice of psychology.
The diversity of psychological services and service providers has contributed to a diffuse sense of professional identity that continues to be a critical issue for school psychologists. Previously, Saklofske et al. (2000) argued that the fundamental challenge and opportunity for the profession in general, and in Canada in particular, is to articulate a proactive and comprehensive conceptual framework to guide psychological service delivery models and practice in an ever-changing world. Closely related to the need to change limited models of practice (e.g., intelligence examiner) is also the need to regulate the profession by establishing national standards for the training, practice, and creden-tialing of school psychologists (Holmes, 1993; McKee, 1996). The lack of standards for the credentialing and practice of school psychologists in Canada inhibits the coming of age of the profession. As Pryzwansky (1993) observed, “Nothing defines a profession like its regulatory practices” (p. 220). The challenge of establishing common ground for the training and practice of school psychology in Canada is attainable in the foreseeable future. The initiative has already been taken by the Canadian Psychological Association and the Canadian Association of School Psychologists, respectively, in establishing the framework for the accreditation of preservice graduate programs and the proposal for the credentialing of practicing school psychologists in Canada.