Raquel S L Guzzo, Albertina Mitjáns Martínez, Herculano Ricardo Campos. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Following three centuries under Portugal’s rule, Brazil became an independent nation in 1822. Brazil is 8,511,965 square kilometers and is the fifth largest country in the world. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and numerous countries in South America to the north (Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela), west (Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Chile), and south (Uruguay). The climate is tropical. The terrain is diverse, including mountains, forests, arid regions, and over 7,500 kilometers of coastline. Brazil has a population of 183 million, and its gross domestic product in 2004 was US$1.492 trillion, US$8,100 per capita. The minimum wage is the equivalent of US$100 a month. There are tremendous disparities between the richest and the poorest, and a large proportion of the population in Brazil lives below the poverty line. The labor force is mostly in services (66%), agriculture (20%), and industry (14%), and the unemployment rate is estimated at 11%. Brazil is rich in minerals and produces 80% of the oil it needs for its own consumption. Only 5% of the land is used for agriculture. Brazil presently includes 27 states and one federal district grouped in five regions.
With about 92 million children and young people 19 years of age or younger, a large portion of the Brazilian population is between the ages of 14 and 19 years old. According to the recent major educational law (Brasil, 2002), the educational system includes five levels: preschool (not mandatory) for children from 2 months to 5 years old; elementary school (mandatory) from 6 to 14 years old; high school from 15 to 17 years old; and college after this age. There is also a compensatory level that includes students who failed at the regular system and adults who want to continue their education. Preschool, elementary, and high school take place during the day; compensatory education is at night. The school day is 5 hours long for private and public schools, according to the last government determination (Ministry of Education, 2005).
Although 95% of 7-year-old children attend elementary school and 36% graduate from high school, only 11% of the youth attend universities. The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, 2000) reported high rates of students who were employed, usually full-time, at ages 15 and 16 years old. On average, classes in Brazilian schools have a ratio of 1 teacher per 36 students. No classroom assistants are available to help teachers. Children with special needs can attend special private schools or public regular schools, according to the recent law. When teachers at the regular schools have difficulties in dealing with children thought to have special needs, they receive no support from specialists. This situation, despite the inclusion public policy, is actually another form of exclusion. It only gives the child and his or her family the illusion of full inclusion. Several studies on special education in regular schools (Damião, 2000; Jesus, 2004) raised concerns that children with special needs were not receiving appropriate support to facilitate their learning.
According to the last educational census, Brazil has 210,000 elementary schools (Ministry of Education, 2005), of which 174,894 are private and only 35,200 are public. Among the public schools, only 15,837 offer special education to children with special needs, and only 784 do so in the private schools. This indicates that the majority of children with special needs attend schools in the public system. According to the Ministry of Education report, 51% of those students referred to special services (i.e., referred to a specialist such as a physician or psychologist) in the public and private systems are referred for cognitive or intellectual problems.
Each year, the Ministry of Education conducts an official, countrywide census to create a database of educational information. In 2005, for the first time, information about ethnic differences was included (descendents of Afro-Americans and whites). The preliminary results of this last official educational census (Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisa Educacionais Anísio Teixeira [National Institute of Educational Studies and Research Anísio Teixeira], 2005) reveals that Brazil has more than 55 million students attending the Basic Educational Level (i.e., preschool and elementary school). There was an increase of 4.35% in the number of students attending preschool, a reduction of 1.4% attending elementary school, and no variation at the high school level. This can be analyzed as a function of different factors, but the dropout rate is still a phenomenon that requires political and professional interventions. The results indicated that 46% considered themselves as pardo (descended from Africans and Whites), 41% indicated as White, 10% as African, and 1% from an indigenous background.
Origin, History, and Current Status of School Psychology
The history of school psychology in Brazil has been influenced by the education infrastructure and policies. The profession of psychology appeared in the country in 1962. Nevertheless, psychological knowledge in Brazil was evident prior to this, mostly contained within medical courses at the university. However, at the beginning of the 1960s, some psychological interventions and research were disseminated through preparation programs for elementary teachers, and it became a subject in the curricula of the educational institutions for the preparation of high school teachers.
Due to the medical/clinical model of providing interventions in a clinic setting, services for children were located in private clinical psychology practices, instead of through the school psychologist. This was the result of educational reforms that enhanced the private system and diminished the quality of the public system (Pfromm Netto, 1996; Yazle, 1997). Thus, although psychology is considered a profession in Brazil, school psychology does not have an established position in the educational system.
At the last census of the Federal Council of Psychology (Conselho Federal de Psicologia, 2004), 2,000 psychologists were consulted about their activities. The responses indicated that 55% reported their main activity as individual or group clinical services, 11% were mainly involved in educational activities, and the rest were distributed among other services, such as organizational, consultative, public, and forensic. Among those, 11% worked in educational activities, 41% worked in private offices, and only 10% worked directly in schools. The others were distributed in minor percentages in public organizations, health offices, and universities.
In relation to training, 42% of Brazilian psychologists complete their preparation at the undergraduate level, 49% continue in specialization programs after receiving a professional license (which may be obtained once undergraduate work is completed), 7% have a master’s degree, and 2% a doctoral degree. Among those who continue their training and preparation, most are in the clinical area (45%); only 9% are in school psychology. The others are distributed in education, philosophy, organizational studies, and administration.
Infrastructure of School Psychology
The Brazilian Association of School and Educational Psychology, founded in 1990, integrates professionals, researchers, and students interested in school psychology in order to attain recognition of this profession in educational institutions, as well as to stimulate and spread the practice of school psychology (Associação Brasileira de Psicologia Escolar e Educacional, 2005). According to this association, school psychologists are those professionals who work to improve the learning process in a global perspective (cognitive, emotional, social, and motor) through services offered to persons, groups, families, and organizations. The practice of school psychologists is more directly related to schools, whereas that of educational psychologists is related to teaching and research in this area.
On January 21, 1964, legislation (Law 53.464) defined the professional areas of psychologists as teaching psychology, clinical psychology, school psychology, and organizational or business psychology. School psychology, according to the work of Mello (1980, p. 17), includes “all activities of psychologists that were developed in schools or other related institutions, and which had the major goal of using psychological techniques for promoting the efficiency of teaching in all its dimensions.” According to Article 14 of Law 53.464, “it is a privative function of the psychologist to utilize psychological methods and techniques with the following objectives: (a) psychological assessment, (b) professional orientation and selection, (c) psychopedagogic orientation, [and] (d) adjustment problem solution” (quoted in Mello, 1980, p. 121). The Federal Council of Psychology specifies the competencies, actions, and related professional attributes of psychologists. These include conducting research, assessment, and prevention as their school and educational professional responsibilities (Conselho Federal de Psicologia, 1988,1992a, 1992b, 2000,2001). Beyond this, psychology professionals are expected to manage organizations, teach psychology at the university, supervise professionals and students, advise different sections and organizations, and provide reports. Two conditions are necessary to practice as a school psychologist in Brazil: completion of a 5-year undergraduate psychology program authorized by the Ministry of Education and (after the implementation of Law 5.766 in 1977) registration in the Federal Council of Psychology (Brasil, 1977).
The Brazilian Association of School and Educational Psychology is also responsible for the country’s only journal dedicated to this field. This journal is accredited by the National Commission of Scientific Journals and is available in all the libraries of universities with psychology programs. The National Association of Research and Graduate Psychology Programs has an internal group that is designated to discuss school psychology research and publish books about it (Almeida, 2003; Del Prette, 2003; Guzzo, 1999, 2003; Mitjáns Martínez, 2005; Wechsler, 1996).
Preparation of School Psychologists
There are 195 undergraduate psychology programs in different universities across the country (Associação Brasileira de Ensino em Psicologia, 2005). Because the training guidelines in Psychology are directed to a generalist professional and prepare students to work in different fields in psychology, there are no programs responsible for training school psychologists specifically.
The Federal Council of Psychology (Conselho Federal de Psicologia, 2000, 2001) created the professional title of “specialist in psychology” for several areas, including school psychology. This resolution normalizes the title of specialist according to the criteria of a minimum of 500 hours concentration in the area of specialization (80% of the hours from the total amount of general hours of the course) and a minimum of 30% of the hours spent on practical experiences. The title is also conditional on the student’s presentation of a monograph related to the area of specialization at the end of the course.
At the master’s and doctoral levels, the periods of study are 24 and 48 months, respectively. In addition, students must, at the end of these periods, conclude their master’s or doctoral research within a research group led by a research supervisor. The training programs rely primarily on translated literature from other countries. Despite the increasing number of publications, and the Brazilian psychological journals, school psychologists and researchers in the development and learning areas have had difficulties in disseminating knowledge, because only one journal, the Brazilian Journal of School Psychology (published by the National Association of School Psychology) is dedicated to this area.
The field of school psychology in Brazil has evolved significantly during the past two decades (Campos & Jucá, 2003; Cruces, 2003, 2005; Gomes, 1999; Guzzo, 1999; Maluf, 1994; Meira & An tunes, 2003a, 2003b; Neves, Almeida, Chaperman, & Batista, 2002; Senna & Almeida, 2005). For instance, school psychology has moved from a clinical model, oriented to individualized attention in relation to learning disabilities and behavioral problems, to a profession that involves diverse work that now includes other forms of interventions that are more preventive and communitarian, as well as group interventions. This does not mean that the traditional and mainstream forms of work have disappeared but that they coexist with new forms. School psychologists work in diverse segments of the school system (e.g., preschools, elementary schools, high schools, and universities) and also in centers for young and special children, and they give assistance in diverse institutions of popular education.
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of School Psychologists
School psychologists perform the basic roles and carry out the functions expected of psychology professionals (Mitjáns Martínez, 2003), according to the demands of their varied positions. Most positions require the following activities.
Assessment and diagnosis. One of the mainstream functions of the school psychologist is the assessment of students with learning disabilities, emotional problems, or behavioral problems; these students are generally referred to the school psychologist by teachers, families, or the school. The main goal of this service is to decide how to address the needs of students, who are mainly referred to other specialists or services outside the school, and also to recommend to teachers how they might deal with such students. Generally, this work is provided by psychologists who are members of psychopedagogic services from private clinics or from sections or divisions of the government. They use psychological instruments (Custódio, 1996) or qualitative procedures such as interviews (Machado, 2000,2003; Neves, 2001; Neves & Machado, 2005). The use of psychological instruments for assessment in different contexts has, recently, been restricted to those instruments and procedures recommended by the National Council of Psychologists. Since 2003, official recommendations have been made about which psychological instruments and procedures can be used for assessment in Brazil (Conselho Federal de Psicologia, Resolution No. 002/2003). The Federal Council has authorized 64 tests for use in Brazil: 14 for intelligence and creativity, 12 for personality, 9 for emotional dimensions and stress, and 30 for different dimensions and uses, such as attention, self-concept, parental and family, driving skills, learning skills, development scales, and so on (Sistema de Avaliação de Testes Psicológicos [Assessment System for Psychological Tests], 2005). This situation shows the diverse uses of research in the assessment area. There is still no policy requiring the formal authorization of tests, despite the great advances in this area after the national movement for psychological assessment. There is no research examining the tests commonly used to assess different dimensions in school contexts. Noronha (1999) conducted a study with 214 psychologists from the São Paulo region to identify the most used test in the professional practice and the context of assessment. The participants indicated, without naming them, that personality tests were the most commonly used instruments and the context was a private office in a clinical setting.
Orientation or counseling. Most psychologists in schools use orientation or counseling, a procedure that refers to an individual or group discussion on a specific theme. There are directive and nondirective discussions. Topics commonly addressed include sexual orientation, discipline or school rules, interpersonal relationships, and various others according to the needs identified by teachers or parents. This is an intervention model that also can be used to collect information about the student’s and the family’s needs.
Interventions. The school psychologist collaborates with the elaboration, coordination, and implementation of several educational programs, especially those related to the prevention of drug abuse, violence, and early pregnancy. The service of the school psychologist as a member of the school team is in the process of consolidation, but great efforts are needed to regularly include the presence of this professional in the school system.
Professional education. School psychologists participate in workshops, courses, or other activities to inform teachers and parents, especially about the relationship of psychology and education and developmental psychology. Others work as professors in universities, preparing students to be psychologists.
Consulting. Some professionals are assessors for specific problems in educational settings and are also involved with public policy assessment or formulation.
Research. Developing research is rarely emphasized among school psychologists. Nevertheless, some school psychologists carry out important studies targeted to obtain information to assess the effects of an intervention. Most research is conducted by school psychologists at university centers. The school psychology group in the National Association of Research and Graduate Programs in Psychology has, in the past decade, published books that emphasize intervention and preparation among school psychologists (Almeida, 2003; Del Prette, 2003; Guzzo, 1999; Mitjáns Martínez, 2005; Novaes & Brito, 1996; Weschler, 1996).
Current Issues Impacting School Psychology
School psychologists and the field of school psychology face multiple challenges in Brazil. One challenge for school psychologists is to promote social equality in the education of children in Brazil. Given numerous social and political influences, this is a daunting task. Another challenge is to have the profession of school psychology more fully recognized in the educational context.
The following is a set of actions, some already initiated, that are needed to face the challenges and difficulties related to the field of school psychology: (a) provide university programs that prepare psychologists with national guidelines that include a description of school psychology; (b) improve research in school psychology by encouraging further discussions and exchange with national and international colleagues; (c) disseminate information about the field of school psychology within general associations, such as the federal and regional councils of psychology, scientific associations, such as the Brazilian Association of School Psychology and the National Association of Research and Graduate Programs of Psychology, and governmental sections, such as the Educational Secretary and Ministry; and (d) use professional organizations to emphasize the importance of the profession of school psychology.
Many challenges face the development of school psychology in Brazil, especially because many challenges concerning the organization of the educational system face Brazilian society. Despite the enormous difficulties in dealing with the consequences of actions by this political system, there is an optimistic perspective inside some universities regarding the future of school psychology.
Nevertheless, the future of school psychology will be determined by the training model constructed inside the universities, under the new guidelines for the basic preparation of psychologists in this context. Besides this, as soon as psychologists assume the role of improving social comprehension in schools and communities, school psychologists will be empowered to take responsibility in ensuring children’s rights and to implement preventive models of intervention. Only then will some of the big challenges—consolidating the profession and transforming reality—be met.