Donald K McKim. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices. Editor: Thomas Riggs, 2nd Edition, Volume 1, Gale, 2015.
Overview
Reformed Christianity, which stresses God’s freedom and desire to enter into covenantal relationships with humanity, has its roots in the work of 16th-century French theologian John Calvin (1509-1564). Reformed Christians believe that God worked through the Old Testament nation of Israel and ultimately sent Jesus Christ into the world to live, die, and rise again to provide salvation for those who believe. God freely bestows the gift of faith in Christ to those whom God chooses. These believers constitute the church and enter into a covenant with God to share the message of Jesus Christ and to serve God’s purposes in the world. God’s freedom, love, and covenant are key beliefs in Reformed Christianity.
Reformed Christianity emerged in the 16th century along with the Lutheran and Anabaptist traditions of the Protestant Reformation. It spread throughout Europe in the late 16th century and in the early 1700s. Many Reformed Christians later immigrated to the North American colonies. During the 18th and 19th centuries, missionaries brought Reformed Christianity to South America, Africa, and Asia. These efforts continued during the 20th century, which saw its massive growth in the southern hemisphere. The World Communion of Reformed Churches was formed through a merger of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) and the Reformed Ecumenical Council (REC) in June 2010 and serves as an umbrella organization for Reformed church bodies.
In 2011 the World Communion of Reformed Churches had 229 member churches in 108 countries. These represent more than 80 million members (who subscribe to more than 60 different confessions of faith). Although “Reformed” refers to a number of church bodies worldwide, most are called Congregational, Presbyterian, Reformed, and United. Reformed Christians typically are religious minorities in their countries. Historically, many Reformed Christians have been active in their societies and vigorous participants in cultural issues. Their influence and significance has often been high, beyond the proportion of their numbers in relation to a general population. This can be seen in the number of Reformed civic leaders as well as in the establishment by the Reformed of various educational institutions and hospitals. In the early 21st century, a global emphasis of the World Communion of Reformed Churches is “justice in the economy, the earth, and for all God’s creation.” This has led Reformed churches to be concerned with ways in which social justice issues are enacted, how the earth is impacted by societal practices, and how the needs of all people can be met. Underlying these efforts is the Reformed conviction that God is the loving sovereign of the universe who calls all people into faithful living.
History
Reformed Christianity is rooted in the reforms begun by Martin Luther (1483-1546) during the Protestant Reformation, a religious and political movement in western Europe during the early 16th century whose aim was to reform certain practices of the Roman Catholic Church and to make the church more accessible to all people—not just the privileged or wealthy. The Reformed movement ultimately developed on a separate path, however, led by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), John Calvin, Martin Bucer (1491-1551), John Knox (c. 1513-1572), and Heinrich Bullinger (1504-1575). The Reformed agreed with Luther’s criticisms of Roman Catholicism but disagreed with him on certain theological issues, including Luther’s views on the presence of Christ in the Eucharist and on baptism’s regenerative qualities. Differences also existed over the forms of worship and church government. Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion, along with a number of other important works, articulated Reformed theology. Reformed Christians were often called “Calvinists.”
After Calvin’s death in 1564, Reformed Christianity advanced throughout Europe, taking root in Switzerland and Germany, expanding into France, and spreading to Scotland, the Netherlands, and England. As it was introduced to new countries, aspects of the religion shifted according to differing perspectives. For example, the Synod of Dort (1618-19) in the Netherlands rejected Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius’s (1560-1609) views on predestination and promulgated what are sometimes called the five points of Calvinism, or “TULIP”: Total depravity, Unconditional election, Limited atonement, Irresistible grace, and Perseverance of the saints. On each of these points, the views of Arminius and his followers were at odds with the Reformed view. For the Arminians, humans, though sinful, could still by the power of their free will respond to the Gospel. The Reformed believed human sinfulness affects the will and the totality of life, so humans have no ability on their own to respond to the Gospel. Since this “total depravity” meant that humans were helpless in their sins, the Reformed stressed “unconditional election,” meaning salvation comes purely from God’s gracious election or choosing of individuals. The Arminians believed salvation came from humans responding to the Gospel of Christ by faith. Their “election” is based on this response. The Reformed taught a “limited atonement,” meaning that Christ’s death was intended to be effective only for the elect—those whom God had chosen to save. For the Arminians, Christ’s death was intended for all, yet not all are saved because they do not exercise faith in Christ. For the Reformed, the effects of Christ’s death are applied to the elect by the “irresistible grace” of God. Those whom God has elected will receive God’s grace, irresistibly. The Arminians held that humans can choose to reject the grace of God and ultimately “backslide” and “lose” the salvation they had apparently received. For the Reformed, the “perseverance of the saints” meant that those sinners who receive the grace of God will persevere to the end in their salvation. They will not lose their salvation because it is grounded in the sole action of God. The Reformed believe that those who turn away from faith never really had it in the first place.
In 1647 the Westminster Assembly (1643-48) in England produced the Westminster Confession of Faith, which articulated doctrinal understandings and a presbyterian form of church government by elders through presbyteries that ultimately influenced Presbyterian churches around the world. In 17th century England, church bodies that held theological beliefs similar to those of Presbyterians but who advocated a local, independent form of church government became known as Congregationalists. They were a predominant form of Reformed Christianity in 18th-century America.
In the 17th and 18th century, large numbers of Reformed Christians emigrated from the British Isles and Europe to the American colonies. The early history of the United States demonstrates the strong influence of Calvinists, who were involved in the nation’s political, cultural, and religious arenas. Later, 18th- and 19th-century missionary movements spread the Reformed faith throughout the world. Dedicated missionaries established churches and ministered through education and health care in South America, Africa, and Asia. The effects of their efforts can still be found.
Throughout the 20th century many Reformed churches participated in worldwide ecumenical (promoting Christian unity) and missionary endeavors. As a result, Reformed Christianity grew strongly in the Southern Hemisphere. In 2005 the total number of Reformed Christians worldwide was 75.5 million, including more than 41 million in Africa and Asia compared to 24 million in Europe and 5 million in North America. In western Europe and North America, Reformed Christians are a declining percentage of the population.
Central Doctrines
Reformed Christians share common beliefs with other Christian traditions. They recognize God as triune (the unity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) who is sovereign over all. The centrality of Jesus Christ is also crucial, with the Reformed confessing him as “God with us” (the Incarnation) and “truly God and truly human.” Christ is the eternal Son of God, who lived, died, and rose again to provide salvation, which is the restoration of the loving relationship between God and humans that has been broken by human sin.
Reformed Christians affirm the doctrines of Protestantism, emphasizing that salvation is the freely given gift of God, offered by God’s grace, and received by sinners through faith. Faith, given by the Holy Spirit, is focused on belief and trust in Jesus Christ as Savior, who has taken upon himself human sin. Through Christ’s death on the cross and resurrection from the dead, sinners are adopted into the family of God and are saved. Salvation comes by God’s grace, through faith, and not by human efforts or actions. The Reformed affirm the Bible (Holy Scripture) as the Word of God and as the medium through which the knowledge of God and God’s actions through Jesus Christ are known. The Holy Spirit leads us to accepting Scripture as the Word of God and illumines the heart to give the gift of faith by which a person confesses Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior.
Reformed Christianity often emphasizes the doctrine of election, or predestination, as associated with the followers of John Calvin. Election is a biblical theme indicating that God chooses a people to carry out his purposes in the world. It is the work of God rather than the efforts of other persons, powers, or ideology. In the Old Testament, God chose the nation of Israel as the covenant people to be a blessing to the world. In modern times, the Reformed believe it is God’s grace alone that gives people the gift of salvation in Jesus Christ. The elect serve God through the covenant community—the church—where they order their lives in accordance with God’s Word. The people of God seek to be faithful stewards and to worship the one, true God.
Reformed Christians see their “vocation,” or “calling,” as the way through which they serve God and show their gratitude. The primary calling of all people is to become disciples of Jesus Christ, or Christians. God’s people work for justice and peace in society, which gives direction to Christian lives and provides a way to be grateful and live in God’s service. Because of this, Reformed Christians often take active roles in society and culture, seeking their transformation through God’s power.
Reformed Christians emphasize God’s initiatives. God “made the first move” by creating the world, entering sinful humanity through Jesus Christ, extending salvation through grace, and giving the gift of faith to the people of God through the work of the Holy Spirit. The Christian’s response is to turn away from sin, live a life of gratitude for the gift of salvation, and praise God for his wondrous love. Gratitude to God also extends to his providence. Reformed theology emphasizes the doctrine of providence and its three parts: preservation, cooperation, and guidance (government). God preserves the world through his upholding power. Without it, the world and everything in it would collapse into nothingness. God’s providence is also found in his cooperation with humans. Through his mercy and love, God chooses to permit humans to do God’s work, which gives meaning to human lives and activities. Finally, God governs the world according to his divine will and guides humans in accordance with his purposes. Reformed Christians take comfort in believing that, in all of life’s events, God’s presence is with them. In return, Christians who experience God’s guidance have the responsibility of devoting themselves to God’s will and purposes and live as faithful disciples of Jesus Christ.
Moral Code of Conduct
Reformed Christians believe salvation is a gift of God’s grace, received through faith in Christ and made possible by the work of the Holy Spirit, whose regenerative power causes the believer to be born again. Thus, the Reformed are oriented toward serving and loving God rather than sinfully turning inward toward their own needs. However, they acknowledge that people continue to sin and do not always act in accordance with God’s will. Reformed Christians believe that God’s forgiveness is extended to them, through Jesus Christ, when they confess their sins in repentance and then resolve to follow God’s will.
The Reformed look to the Bible as the source of their knowledge of God’s will. A Reformed Christian code of conduct is basically to seek to follow the example of Jesus Christ and to abide by God’s law as revealed in Scripture. The moral law, revealed especially in the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20), is God’s declaration of the way human society and human lives should be ordered.
Reformed Christians emphasize that Christians willingly follow God’s law—not to gain their own salvation but as a grateful response for the gift of salvation given in Jesus Christ. In other words, the Reformed believe that following the law of God is the result of salvation, not its cause.
Sacred Books
The Reformed look to the Bible as the supreme source of the knowledge of God. They view 66 books of the Old and New Testament Scriptures as the means used by God to uniquely and authoritatively reveal himself.
Sacred Symbols
The cross stands as the primary symbol of Christianity. Reformed Christians, like other Protestants, honor the empty cross (in contrast to the crucifix, which shows a dying Jesus on the cross) of the resurrected Christ as a sacred symbol of their faith. An empty cross topped by a crown is another common symbol in Reformed churches. This represents the crucified Christ as Lord, who reigns over the world. In addition, a rooster adorning a church steeple traditionally was a symbolic reminder of the day when Christ will come again in judgment.
In general, the Reformed are wary of giving reference to objects, fearing that the symbols themselves will detract from the realities they represent. They consider the worship of a symbol a form of idolatry—a central sin to Reformed Christians.
Early and Modern Leaders
Well-known historical figures who were adherents of Reformed Christianity include Isaac Watts (1674-1748), an English nonconformist minister and prolific hymn writer; George Whitefield (1714-1770), a Church of England evangelist whose tour of the American colonies was pivotal in New England’s Great Awakening; David Livingstone (1813-1873), a Scottish physician, missionary, and explorer in Africa; and Robert E. Speer (1867-1947), an American Presbyterian lay leader and a central figure in the American missionary movement. Reformed minister Alan Boesak (1946- ) played an important role in the struggle against apartheid in South Africa. Fred McFeely Rogers (1928-2003) was an American educator, Presbyterian minister, songwriter, author, and television host who created the popular children’s television program Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood. His wide-ranging influence on children makes him one of the most famous Reformed Christians of all time.
Major Theologians and Authors
Among the most important historical and contemporary figures for Reformed Christians are those theologians who have provided biblical and systematic expositions of the Reformed faith. These include Ulrich Zwingli, who began the Swiss Protestant Reformation and was a reformer in Zurich. Zwingli studied humanism and theologically stressed the sovereignty of God in election along with simplicity in worship. He focused on preaching as the center of worship and accepted two sacraments, baptism and the Lord’s Supper. He believed Christ’s presence in the Lord’s Supper is spiritual, not bodily and proposed a unity of church and state.
Zwingli’s successor in Zurich was the prolific writer Heinrich Bullinger. His Decades (1549) offered a full theology presented in 50 sermons. Bullinger was influential in developing the theology of the covenant, and he sought a mediating position with the Lutheran Church on the controversial issue of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. He also was the main author of the Second Helvetic Confession (1566).
Martin Bucer was the leading reformer in Strasbourg, France. He worked to reconcile issues between Lutherans and the Reformed, especially over the issue of the Lord’s Supper. His influence was magnified through his views on predestination, worship, ministry, and church discipline when they were adapted by John Calvin, who spent several years with Bucer in Strasbourg. He also advocated a grand view of a Reformed church and society.
John Calvin was a Reformed theologian whose works became the most important theological writings for the Reformed faith. His Institutes developed from 1536 to 1559 and turned into a full theology organized in four books, structured around the Apostles’ Creed: Father, Son, Spirit, and church. Calvin emphasized salvation as God’s gracious work of election (predestination);the union of the Christian believer with Christ by faith; and the centrality of Christ as prophet, priest, and king. Calvin’s view of the Lord’s Supper stressed Christ’s spiritual rather than physical presence.
Later important theologians include Theodore Beza (1519-1605), who systematized elements of Calvin’s thought, especially in regard to election and predestination, and Francis Turretin (1623-1687), whose detailed and technical theological system was a prime example of post-Reformation and the Reformed orthodoxy of the 17th century. In England, during the 16th and 17th centuries, significant Reformed voices included William Perkins (1558-1602). His extensive theological writings stressed the implications of Reformed theology for the life of faith and for ethics in his “cases of conscience.” Perkins’s student, William Ames (1576-1633), writing in the Netherlands, produced the theological textbook A Marrow of Theology (1623), which became a standard textbook for New England Puritanism. It too emphasized the vital relationship between theology and ethics—between what one believes and what one does. John Owen (1616—1683), a leading Puritan theologian, wrote a number of theological treatises.
The “Father of Liberal Theology,” Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (1768-1834) was part of the Reformed tradition. Leading Reformed theologians in the Netherlands include Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920) and Herman Bavinck (1854-1921), who each wrote important works in systematic theology. A significant Reformed theologian in the United States was Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), who wrote penetrating theological treatises. Charles Hodge (1797-1878), of Princeton Theological Seminary, produced an influential three-volume work Systematic Theology. The Swiss theologian Karl Barth (1886-1968), through his massive Church Dogmatics, was a dominant Reformed voice in the 20th century. Other important Reformed theologians are Peter Taylor Forsyth (1848-1858), who emphasized the centrality of Jesus Christ and his atonement for the forgiveness of sin, and H. Emil Brunner (1889-1966), who sought to bring Reformation insights into theology and emphasized humanity’s sinfulness and the need to respond to God’s revelation in Christ. The Dutch theologian Gerrit Cornelius (G.C.) Berkouwer (1903-1996), who taught at the Free University of Amsterdam, produced a number of works in dogmatics with important contributions on the doctrines of Scripture, sin, and the sacraments. Jürgen Moltmann (1926- ) adapted Reformed insights in his “theology of hope,” which emphasized eschatology and the ultimate reign of God. The American theologian Donald G. Bloesch (1928-2010) produced a number of theological texts, seeking to combine the insights of Reformed theology with an evangelical orientation that emphasized Christian devotion and action.
Organizational Structure
Reformed churches are either presbyterian or congregational in church government. Presbyterianism features a series of graduated governing bodies, with the presbytery as the central governing unit. This central unit is composed of ministers and elders (elected leaders of local congregations) from a specific geographical area. In a congregational polity each local church has complete jurisdiction over its own church life. In the late 20th and 21st centuries, some Reformed churches have become associated with the “emergent church” movement. This is an ecumenical and loosely organized grouping of churches that emphasize mission and ministry over church doctrine and denominational structure. Cultural changes during this period have led various Reformed denominations to adapt their denominational structures in different ways to try to enable more effective mission and ministry activities.
Houses of Worship and Holy Places
In the Reformed view there are no holy places; instead, worship can take place anywhere. However, Reformed Christians do build houses of worship to promote and enhance the worship of God. The architecture of Reformed churches has been significantly influenced by the conviction that the proclamation of the Word of God and the sacraments are central to worship. This typically results in a central pulpit in the worship space, often raised to emphasize the importance of preaching. The Lord’s Supper is administered from a Communion table set at the same level of the congregation, as opposed to a high altar. The table emphasizes the equality and fellowship of all congregants.
What is Sacred
Reformed Christians do not recognize any human elements as sacred. Only God—known in the Trinity as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—is sacred. Since Jesus Christ has ascended into heaven, there are no sacred objects, persons, or places on earth to be worshipped. To do so would be to practice idolatry—a theological view held by most Protestant churches. The use of symbols in worship and in other liturgical practices, however, is more prominent in other Protestant bodies than among the Reformed churches. Symbols are not forbidden, but they are recognized as a means or an aid to worship.
Holidays and Festivals
Reformed Christians celebrate traditional Christian holidays, particularly Advent (four Sundays beginning with the Sunday nearest November 30), Christmas, Epiphany (January 6), the baptism of the Lord (the first Sunday after Epiphany, which is on January 6), Lent (40 weekdays and six Sundays, beginning on Ash Wednesday and culminating in Holy Week), Palm Sunday, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension Day, Pentecost (50 days after Easter), and Christ the King Sunday (last Sunday of the Christian year prior to the first Sunday of Advent). Individual congregations may have their own traditions and practices around these holiday festivals, such as special worship services or times of fellowship. During the 16th century in Geneva, the churches eliminated the traditional Christian round of holy days, fearing that they were too reminiscent of Roman Catholicism. New England Puritans did the same in the 18th century. Since then, however, Christian festivals have been accepted as a normal part of the church year in Reformed churches. Participation in major Christian festivals is often strongly stressed as a way for church members to express their Christian devotion and commitment. An emphasis on “spiritual practices” during some of these holidays is an emerging theme in a number of churches.
Mode of Dress
Reformed Christians’ mode of dress varies according to the particular societies and cultures in which they live. While normal Christian prescriptions for modesty and avoidance of ostentation are present, Reformed Christians are free to adopt modern-day dress in their own cultural settings.
Dietary Practices
There are no dietary practices prescribed or suggested for Reformed Christians. The Reformed regard food as a good gift of God, necessary for the sustenance and enjoyment of life. Individual Christians, for various reasons, may adopt dietary practices that could include altering one’s diet during Lent as an act of “spiritual discipline.”
Rituals
Weekly worship services are a central part of the Christian experience. The Reformed emphasize that worship is for the people of God, who gather to honor and worship him, to pray, to listen to his Word, to celebrate the sacraments, and to be nurtured in their lives of faith in order to serve God in all that they do. Worship services feature hymns, prayers, a sermon, the sacraments, an offering, and, often, announcements related to the local congregation. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, some Reformed churches have offered both “traditional” and “contemporary” worship services. A goal of the contemporary service is to use more recent music (often “praise hymns”) and other liturgical elements, usually in a less formal setting than the church sanctuary to attract those who prefer this type of worship experience. Although attendance and participation in worship has traditionally been seen as a basic Christian duty, in many places there has been a noticeable drop in attendance figures versus the number of official church members of a congregation.
Sacraments are an outward ritual or sign of an inward belief. In contrast to some other Christian traditions, the Reformed usually do not celebrate the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper at every worship service. The Eucharist is given to strengthen the faith of believers and is a means by which the benefits of salvation achieved by Jesus Christ are sealed in the lives of those who have faith. Reformed Christians believe that Jesus Christ is spiritually present in the sacrament but not in a physical or substantial form. Traditionally, Reformed churches have limited reception of the Lord’s Supper to adults who have received the sacrament of baptism—either as infants or adults. Since the mid-20th century, however, there have been shifts, especially in the United States and among the larger Reformed (especially the Presbyterian) bodies, to open reception to baptized children who have not yet been confirmed.
In public worship services, the Scriptures are read and prayers are made. Reformed Christians are also encouraged to practice regular Bible study and prayer outside of worship services in order to keep the Holy Spirit active in one’s life. They believe that, through Scripture reading, God’s will can be revealed, and that, through prayer, a sense of communion with God can be established by the work of the Holy Spirit.
Rites of Passage
Infant baptism is typically practiced in the Reformed tradition; however, adult baptisms are also performed and acknowledged. Baptism is the rite through which a person professes his or her faith in Christ and becomes a member of the Christian community. During infant baptisms, the parents of the child and the local congregation make promises to raise the child with a knowledge of God’s love in Jesus Christ. When the child is older (typically around 12), a personal confession of faith can be made as the young person becomes a church member. This rite is called confirmation.
While Reformed churches acknowledge only two sacraments—baptism and the Lord’s Supper—other rites of passage are part of church life. Weddings are performed in Reformed churches to acknowledge marriage. Funerals are held not only to acknowledge the deceased but also recognize the eternal life that Jesus Christ gives as a result of his Resurrection. Participation in these various rites is an ongoing part of Christian life for Reformed Christians.
Membership
Membership in Reformed churches is open to all people. Reformed Christians seek to bring others into their communities of faith through sharing the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Reformed Christians hold that the Gospel of Jesus Christ is to be shared with all people and that vigorous efforts must be made to spread Christ’s message through words and deeds. They also recognize that it is the Holy Spirit—not human efforts—that causes a person to make a profession of Christian faith. Some mainstream Reformed bodies in the United States, such as the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), have experienced a decline in membership, while membership in Reformed churches in other parts of the world has increased.
In the early 21st century, many Reformed church bodies have Web sites and engage in various social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, to communicate with members and invite others to participate in church life. Churches use these media often in place of printed church newsletters to communicate news and events, provide devotional materials, post sermons, and more. Denominational Web sites include the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) (http://www.pcusa.org), the United Church of Canada (http://www.united-church.ca), and the United Church of Christ (http://www.ucc.org);local congregations who have Web sites include Toronto’s Bloor Street United Church (http://www.bloorstreetunited.org), Louisville’s Highland Presbyterian Church (http://www.hpc-lou.org), and Seattle’s Plymouth Church United Church of Christ (http://plymouthchurchseattle.org).
Religious Tolerance
Reformed Christians support the freedom to worship, religious tolerance, and ecumenical participation. Not all Reformed churches are as committed to ecumenical endeavors as others, however. Examples of ecumenically oriented Reformed churches are the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the United Church of Christ, and various “United” churches, such as the United Reformed Church. Reformed bodies that are not as ecumenically inclined include the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, the Presbyterian Church in America, and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America.
Reformed Christianity sees itself as one stream of Christian belief, or one part of the Christian family. Despite theological differences with other churches, the Reformed typically celebrate the commonalities of Christian faith and recognize that the ties that bind them with other Christians are greater than the doctrines that divide them. Reformed Christians have often spoken and acted against political oppression while working for peace and justice for all persons. For example, the Belhar Confession, adopted by the Dutch Reformed Mission Church (DRMC) in South Africa in 1986, was a forceful condemnation of apartheid and provided Reformed Christians with a theological basis for anti-apartheid struggles and the quest for toleration and justice.
Social Justice
Reformed Christianity has adopted the paradigm of “Christ the transformer of culture.” This means the emphasis of the Reformed is to bring the Gospel to bear on all societal and cultural institutions and practices, so that the power of God can work within the structures of a community toward transforming it. The quest for social justice is part of this paradigm. Reformed churches have consistently made social pronouncements that focus on contemporary issues, and they have been active in efforts to fight poverty, support education, practice peacemaking, and champion human rights. The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) and the United Reformed Church in England have been leaders among Reformed churches in the fight for social justice.
Social Life
Like other Christian religions, the Reformed church promotes healthy marriages and stable families. While the Reformed view marriage as ordained by God and intended to be permanent, Reformed Christians also recognize that error and sin are part of Christian existence. Because of this, divorce is recognized under certain circumstances. The Reformed also view the human family as a witness to the family of God, the church, into which believers in Jesus Christ are adopted through faith. Gender roles vary in society, church, and home within Reformed churches. For example, some Reformed bodies do not support the ordination of women to pastoral leadership in the church, while others promote women in church leadership as pastors and teachers. These differences in policy mostly rest on differing biblical and theological interpretations of Scripture. Reformed churches have influenced gender roles more broadly in society as they advocate for equal rights for all members of society, regardless of gender.
Controversial Issues
There is no unanimity among Reformed Christians on contemporary controversial issues such as birth control, divorce, abortion, same-sex marriage, homosexuals in church leadership, and the role of women in religion. Societal and cultural differences typically affect the way these issues are understood in different settings. Theological arguments on different sides of these issues are often debated. In the early 21st century, some Reformed churches have reversed their historic opposition against gays and lesbians in marriage and church leadership. This has led some churches to leave their particular Reformed denominations and affiliate themselves with other Reformed churches that share their views on these and other issues.
Cultural Impact
Contributions of Reformed Christians to the arts and sciences include the work of Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669), the 17th-century Dutch painter, who gave visual artistic expression to Reformed ideas. In the political sphere, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), English soldier and political leader, embraced a Calvinist faith in his attempt to reform English government. Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924), president of the United States from 1913 to 1921, was a devout Reformed believer whose faith greatly influenced his approach to politics and his zeal for a League of Nations.
In the Netherlands Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920), a leading Reformed theologian, was also a prominent journalist—as well as a member of parliament, founder of the Calvinist Free University of Amsterdam, and prime minister. Yoshitaka Kuman (1899-1981) was a Japanese minister and theologian who, through many writings, was significant for contextualizing Christian theology within Japanese life and culture. Samuel Habib (1928-1998), an Egyptian church leader and president of the Protestant Council of Egypt, wrote more than 70 books. American cultural icon Fred M. Rogers (“Mister Rogers”; 1928-2003)—an educator and popular host of children’s television programs—was a Presbyterian minister.