Nevin Dölek & Z Hande Sart. The Handbook of International School Psychology. Editor: Shane R Jimerson, Thomas D Oakland, Peter T Farrell. Sage Publications. 2007.
Psychological services in Turkish schools date back to the 1950s and were largely influenced by the advances and developments in the field of psychological counseling in the United States. Professionals providing psychological services in the schools are typically referred to as psychological counselors. There are no undergraduate or graduate programs in school psychology offered in the universities. For this reason, the term psychological services is used in this chapter.
Context of Psychological Services in the Schools
The Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti) was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatür k during the 1920s, the country adopted wide-ranging social, legal, and political reforms. A bi-continental country, Turkey is located mainly in the Middle East and partly in Southeast Europe. The actual area of Turkey is 814,578 square kilometers, of which 790,200 are in Asia and 24,378 are in Europe. Turkey is bordered by Bulgaria and Greece on the west; Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran on the east; and Iraq and Syria on the south. Turkey’s location is where the three continents of Asia, Africa, and Europe are closest to one another. The mainland of Turkey, Anatolia, is called “the cradle of civilization,” because it hosted many civilizations, including the Hittite, Phrygian, Lydian, and Trojan civilizations, the Seljuk, the Ottoman Empire, and others.
Turkey’s total population in 2002 was 67.8 million, estimated at 70.41 million in 2006; its population is the second largest in Europe. The estimated population distribution by age is birth to 14 years, 25.5%; 15 to 64 years, 67.7%; 65 years and over, 6.8% (http://www.die.gov.tr). Seventy percent of the population is younger than 35 years. Students, in private and public institutions from preschool to higher education, constitute 25% of the population. More than 60% of the population resides in cities (Tunali, Ercan, Baskent, Öztürk, & Akçigit, 2003). The majority of the population is of Turkish ethnicity and speaks the official language of the country, Turkish. Other minorities include the Abkhaz, Albanians, Arabs, Armenians, Assyrians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Greeks, Georgians, Jews, Kurds, Levantines, and Zazas. Nearly 99% of the population is Muslim, although Turkey is the only Islamic country that includes secularism in its constitution and guarantees complete freedom of worship to non-Muslims.
Since World War II, the Turkish economy has been transformed by the growth of modern industry and commerce and the consequent decline in the share of agriculture in its national income. In 2004, Turkey’s gross domestic product was US$508.7 billion, US$7,400 per capita. Agriculture still accounts for more than 35% of employment. The largest industrial sector, however, is textiles and clothing, which accounts for one third of industrial employment. However, other sectors, notably the automotive and electronics industries, are rising in importance. Employment percentages are 36% agriculture, 23% industry, and 41% services (http://www.die.gov.tr). During the past decade, the Turkish economy has suffered from several major shocks, including two Gulf Wars, an economic crisis, the delayed impact of the Russian crisis, and two devastating earthquakes in the industrialized regions of western Turkey. These resulted in substantial fluctuations in the standard of living. Notably, between the end of 2000 and the beginning of 2003, the number of unemployed individuals doubled (Akkök & Watts, 2003; Tunali et al, 2003).
According to the results of the 2000 Census, 27,429,570 children (defined as the population under 20) resided in Turkey (http://www.die.gov.tr). Children under age 5 account for 6,584,822, those between ages 5 and 9 account for 6,756,617, those between ages 10 and 14 account for 6,878,656, and those between ages 15 and 19 account for 7,209,475. Thus, children under 20 make up approximately 40% of the population.
The educational system in Turkey includes formal education and nonformal education. Formal education includes pre-primary education, primary and secondary education, and higher education institutions. Pre-primary education includes optional education of children between ages 36 and 72 months who are too young for compulsory primary education. Primary education for children between ages 6 and 14 is compulsory for all citizens, boys and girls, and is free in public schools. Primary education institutions provide 8 years of education, at the end of which graduates receive a primary education diploma. These include public institutions (primary schools, boarding schools, schools for children with disabilities) and private institutions (Turkish, foreign, minority, and international primary schools). Secondary education includes all institutions of general, vocational, and technical education for a period of at least 3 years following primary education. However, educational reform, starting with the 2005-2006 school year, has extended secondary education to 4 years. Among higher education institutions are universities, faculties, institutes, higher education schools, conservatories, vocational higher education schools, and application-research centers. Nonformal education includes services such as teaching reading and writing and continuing education opportunities for students to acquire the concepts and habits of collective living, supporting, helping, and working and organizing collectively.
In Turkey, all aspects of schooling, including educational programs, curricula, and the selection of teachers and resources are performed under the supervision and control of the Ministry of National Education. According to the Constitution, everyone has the right to receive formal education. During the 2001-2002 academic year, the total numbers of students and teachers were 16,090,785 and 578,805, respectively (Akyüz, 2001). Ratios of students to teachers at each level of the education system were pre-primary (256,392:14,520), primary (10,310,844:375,511), secondary (2,312,271:138,785), and nonformal (3,211,278:49,989). Paralleling changes in the school system, the Ministry of National Education is also making changes to the goals, programs, and organizations of nonformal education by shifting its focus from formal or nonformal education to continuing education. As of 2005,16 types of non-formal education institutions, such as public training centers, apprenticeship training centers, practical schools of art for girls, industrial practical schools of art, open primary education, open high schools, and vocational and technical open schools, are now functioning within the Ministry of National Education system and are providing services to people of all ages.
Across the education system, over 90% of students are enrolled in public school systems. Enrollment rates in the 2000-2001 academic year were 100% in pre-primary education, 100% in primary education, and 64% in secondary education (22% in vocational education and 42% in general high schools). In the academic year 1997-1998, the overall average number of students per classroom was 43; in 2001-2002, this figure dropped to 39, and in cities, it was reduced from 61 to 48. There are 578,800 teachers employed in 58,900 public, private, and special education institutions. In the formal education system, 96% of the schools, 98% of the students, and 95% of the teachers are in public institutions. Education services are also provided in special education schools for children and adolescents in five disability groups, namely, visual impairment, hearing impairment, orthopedic impairment, mental retardation, and chronic illness. In the academic year 2001-2002, 17,600 students were educated, and 3,100 teachers were employed in 347 special education schools and institutions.
Origin, History, and Current Status of Psychological Services in the Schools
The necessity for psychological services within the educational system was formally recognized by a decree from the Ministry of National Education in 1953, which resulted in the establishment of the first center for psychological services in Ankara in 1955. For diagnostic and educational purposes, the Test and Research Bureau, established by the Ministry of National Education in 1953, started to standardize tests of intelligence, personality, and achievement (Dogan, 1998). In 1958, the Ministry of National Education issued a bylaw that changed the name of the Psychological Services Centers to Guidance and Research Centers in order to specifically emphasize the need for guidance and research (Öner, 1977). The period between 1955 and 1960 marked the beginning of guidance and counseling services in Turkey and thus the establishment of psychological services in its schools. Within the framework of this movement, psychological services in schools were defined by the functions of those employed by the Ministry of National Education at Guidance and Research Centers.
The impact of the testing movement constituted a second force in the growth of psychological services. According to the report prepared by Öner (1977), group tests of mental and educational abilities were initiated in guidance centers and in schools; individual tests of mental and personality characteristics quickly became standard procedures in psychiatry or mental health clinics (cited in Dölek, Inceoglu, & Özdemir, 1989). The establishment of guidance and counseling services in junior and senior high schools was mentioned in the Second Five-Year Developmental Plan that was implemented between 1968 and 1972 (T. C. Basbakanlik Devlet Planlama Teskilati, 1967). In the Third Five-Year Developmental Plan, covering 1973 to 1977, the importance of guidance in education was further emphasized (T. C. Basbakanlik Devlet Planlama Teskilati, 1973). In the Basic Law of National Education, guidance and counseling services were deemed necessary in schools. In accordance with the decisions taken at the meeting of the Ninth National Council of Education in 1974, a 2-hour weekly guidance program was included in the curriculum of junior and senior high schools (T. C. Milli Egitim Bakanhgi, 1985).
During the period of establishment of undergraduate programs in counseling (1982-1995), Turkish universities began accepting students in a 4-year bachelor of education program. In 1989, the Psychological Counseling and Guidance Association was founded by a group of educators in Ankara. The Association began to publish the Journal of Psychological Counseling and Guidance in 1990 and added a newsletter, Psychological Counseling and Guidance Bulletin, in 1997. The Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Association held the First National Psychological Counseling and Guidance Congress in 1991. The ethical standards of the counseling profession were established in 1995 (Psikolojik Dansma ve Rehberlik Dernegi, 1995). In 1992, the International School Psychology Colloquium was held in Istanbul, which motivated international involvement among colleagues. The Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Association became affiliated with the International School Psychology Association at that time. In 1996, the Higher Education Council, in collaboration with the World Bank, developed 4-year undergraduate and master’s degree guidance and counseling programs under the National Education Development Project for Pre-service Teacher Education (YÖK/World Bank National Education Development Project Pre-service Teacher Education, 1996).
The two major earthquakes in 1999 had a profound influence on the development and nature of psychological services. On August 17, 1999, an earthquake caused destruction equal to that of approximately 400 nuclear bombs when it hit the Marmara region of western Turkey (Saglamer et al., 1999). According to information from the General Directorate of Disaster Affairs of the Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, a total of 18,373 lives were lost, 48,901 people were injured, and 800,000 were left homeless by the widespread destruction (Iste Depremin Bilançosu, 2000). Social Services and Child Protection Organization reported that 1,400 children lost their mothers, fathers, or both (Deprem, 2000). Less than 3 months later, another massive earthquake, rated 7.2 on the Richter scale, hit Duzce and Bolu in the region just east of the first disaster area. It left another 100,000 homeless, 8,845 dead, and 4,948 wounded. The psychological impact was immense, as Turkey was still struggling to cope with the first disaster when the second struck. Schools were also affected greatly: 178 teachers and 1,387 students died, 1,605 schools were damaged, and 102 schools collapsed (Iste Depremin Bilançosu, 2000; T. C. Basbakanlik Kriz Yönetim Merkezi, 2000).
Hundreds of mental health professionals (psychologists, psychiatrists, counselors, and social workers) focused, from the beginning, on the need for psychosocial support to children and their parents. These professionals worked in earthquake areas on a volunteer basis for many months. Priority was given to helping children. A few days after the earthquake, psychosocial support activities were already taking place in children’s centers in the disaster areas. These were initiated by nongovernmental organizations and universities and later supported by the United Nations International Children’s Fund and the Ministry of National Education. Yet, a need for empowering professionals with effective crisis response tools was felt soon afterward. For this reason, efforts were concentrated on organizing immediate training programs for mental health professionals, including those working in schools. Within several months, many programs were provided by experts from different countries.
One of the training programs for mental health professionals was delivered in Istanbul, through the Helpers Assisting Survivors of Natural Disasters project, an initiative of the Community Stress Prevention Center of Kiryat Shmona, Israel. Another was organized by the Turkish Psychology Association on the Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing approach. The International School Psychology Association and the National Emergency Assistance Team members of the National Association of School Psychologists in the United States provided a series of training programs on crisis intervention for school counselors, school psychologists, and school principals. This series was sponsored by the Foundation for the Advancement of Counseling in Education in Turkey. As a result of these programs, the Foundation for the Advancement of Counseling in Education, in cooperation with the Department of Education in the province of Istanbul, developed a project to assist the schools to prepare for crisis situations. This project aimed to (a) establish crisis intervention units at Guidance and Research Centers in various provinces of Istanbul, (b) form interschool crisis support groups with the participation of the principals from 15 schools in the same province, and (c) set up a school crisis response team in each school to develop skills in crisis intervention and assist in its effectiveness. The first achievement of this project was to train 180 principals, 50 psychologists or counselors working at Guidance and Research Centers, and 15 psychological counselors as trainers on crisis preparation, crisis management, and crisis response in schools.
The Turkish Ministry of National Education, in collaboration with the United Nations International Children’s Fund, other United Nations agencies, and the Turkish Psychological Association, developed a comprehensive Psychosocial School Project to assist schools in disaster areas. To implement such a large-scale project, a strong infrastructure was developed. The Ministry of National Education in Ankara appointed a project team from within the Ministry and a professional National Expert Team representing some of the key resource institutions in Turkey (Ministry of National Education & UNICEF, 2001). The projects contributed to an increased acceptance and recognition of the importance of counseling services within Ministry of National Education, as well as in the school system.
School psychological service professionals gained a huge amount of experience from these unfortunate events and now have a better working plan to help in times of crisis. There is growing awareness in Turkey of the need for crisis plans and for school safety programs. In addition, there is a higher appreciation of the work done by mental health providers both inside and outside of the schools. These events led many universities to initiate courses on crisis intervention in counseling programs.
In response to inquiries made by the authors, an officer of the Ministry of National Education (H. Sen, personal communication, July 2005) reported that by the 2005-2006 school year, the total number of professionals working for psychological services was 11,327 (5,782 females, 5,545 males). Approximately 53% of these professionals are serving at the primary school level, and 37% are working at the secondary school level. Only 79 psychological counselors are reported to be working in rehabilitation centers for children with mental retardation and autism. In 2005, there were 133 Guidance and Research Centers with a total of 917 professionals (527 females, 390 males) serving students. There are almost no psychological services in schools in rural areas, but Guidance and Research Centers in city centers also serve students referred by rural schools (Ministry of National Education, n.d.).
More than half of the professionals currently employed to deliver psychological services in the school system have a bachelor’s degree in guidance and psychological counseling (58%) or psychology (8%); the rest come from a diverse variety of bachelor’s degree programs, such as educational sciences, child development, educational management, special education teaching, pedagogy, sociology, and philosophy. The ratio of students to psychological counselors appears to be about 4,500 to 1. Salaries of psychological services personnel working in public schools and Guidance and Research Centers are determined by the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Work and Social Security, because they are considered to be state workers. Most receive payment equal to that of teachers, averaging about US$600 to US$900 per month, depending on years of experience. Those working in the private schools earn about US$800 to US$1,500 per month (http://www.iskur.gov.tr). Job stability for those working for public schools and for Guidance and Research Centers is high, because their rights are protected by the laws for state workers. Work contracts in private schools are usually for one year, to be renewed every year. This creates considerable anxiety for professionals working in private schools. Increasing numbers of private schools and universities create new job opportunities, yet job security is not stable in private institutions.
The organization of in-service training for psychological counselors is the responsibility of the Ministry of National Education. However, professional associations and private counseling centers also have active roles in organizing in-service training. The Ministry of National Education encourages psychological counselors working in public schools and Guidance and Research Centers to pursue graduate studies by enabling them to work, while going to school, without any reduction in their salaries. On the other hand, most of the private schools provide financial support for the in-service training of their psychological counselors. Although many psychological counselors hope to find employment outside the school system (e.g., in private counseling centers) when they complete their master’s or doctoral studies, the number of psychologists and counselors in private practice is still limited.
The Infrastructure of Psychological Services in the Schools
Three national organizations work on behalf of psychologists and psychological counselors in Turkey. The Turkish Psychological Association was founded in 1976 and has approximately 1,600 members. It is the only professional organization that represents the science and the profession of psychology in Turkey. The Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Association, which was founded in 1989, serves the counseling profession in Turkey. The Foundation for the Advancement of Counseling in Education is a nonprofit organization that aims to advance the development of psychological services in schools and help cultivate the profession in higher education institutions.
Turkish national education has been determined in accordance with the Constitution of the Turkish Republic, the Basic Law of National Education No. 1739, and the Law for Unification of Education and the Law for Eight-Year Compulsory and Uninterrupted Education No. 4306 (http://www.meb.gov.tr). To overcome the problems in the field of special education and to improve the quality of education for students with disabilities, Act 573 was enacted in 1997. According to Act 573, all individuals with disabilities have the right to be educated. Accordingly, children with disabilities who were previously disregarded or restricted from exercising their educational rights are given the opportunity to benefit from education (Ministry of National Education, 1997).
Role definitions, tasks, and functions of guidance and psychological counselors in the schools and of professionals working at Guidance and Research Centers are regulated by a Ministry of National Education decree. The most recently revised decree, dated May 2001, declares that school psychological services in Turkey are mainly performed by the guidance and psychological counseling offices in primary and secondary schools and Guidance and Research Centers of the Ministry of National Education (T. C. Milli Egitim Bakanhgi, 2001b).
Preparation of Psychologists Working in the Schools
As of 2004, approximately 4,290 students were enrolled in counseling psychology undergraduate programs. Approximately 695 students apply yearly for the bachelor of arts degree in these programs. The distribution of students enrolled in guidance, psychological counseling, and psychology departments at the undergraduate and graduate levels are as follows. In the 2003-2004 academic year, a total of 695 students from 34 universities graduated from undergraduate guidance and psychological counseling programs; 450 students from 23 universities graduated from undergraduate psychology programs. Also in the 2003-2004 academic year, only 57 students at the master’s level and 12 students at the doctoral level graduated from guidance and psychological counseling programs, and only 89 students at the master’s level and 10 students at the doctoral level graduated from psychology programs (http://www.osym.gov.tr).
In contrast to international practices in the field of school psychology, no school psychology program exists at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Since 1982, the number of programs in psychological services has been increasing at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. However, there is great discrepancy among the courses offered and in course content from one university to another (Akkoyun, 1995). Some programs emphasize a psychological base in their training; others underscore educational sciences. In addition, there are no formally recognized requirements for professional certification and no procedures for official accreditation, and there is no agreement on a job title or a definition of psychological counseling (Dogan, 1998).
Although there are no established accreditation standards to guide the preparation of psychological counselors, most of the universities use the scientist-practitioner model. For example, Bogazici University in Istanbul provides specialization at the master’s level in guidance and psychological counseling (Bogazici University, n.d.). The program emphasizes both theory and technical competence and has three areas of focus: (a) theoretical, with specialized focus on culture, community, development, and special education (e.g., personality theories, adoloscent psychology, early intervention, cultural issues, educational psychology, and psychological assessment); (b) research (e.g., program development and evaluation, research methods, and applied research); and (c) field practice (internship) using different kinds of assessment tools, skills, and intervention methods under supervision, classroom observations, consultation, testing, and interviews. The Master of Arts in Guidance and Psychological Counseling program in the Department of Educational Sciences is a 2-year program consisting of 30 credit hours of coursework spread over four semesters and includes a thesis and an oral thesis defense. Students are also required to complete fieldwork. The successful completion of the program leads to the master of arts in educational sciences degree (http://www.boun.edu.tr). The program in the Middle East Technical University, Ankara, emphasizes (a) core courses on research methods and educational statistics; (b) courses in psychological counseling and guidance (e.g., counseling children, assessment, career development counseling, crisis counseling, counseling in higher education, principles and techniques of counseling, field practices, and group counseling); and (c) elective courses (e.g., ethical issues in counseling, theories of counseling, mental health issues, and guidance) (Middle East Technical University, n.d.).
Roles, Functions, and Responsibilities of Psychologists Working in the Schools
According to the Decree of Guidance and Psychological Counseling Services, Guidance and Research Centers were to be established in cities and towns in Turkey (T. C. Milli Egitim Bakanligi, 2001a). These centers are designed to coordinate the activities of guidance and psychological services in the primary and secondary schools in the city where they are situated and to identify students with special needs and carry out necessary interventions and placements. Professionals on the Guidance and Research Centers’ interdisciplinary teams include psychological counselors, psychologists, special educators, social workers, and program development specialists.
The stated functions of these centers are to conduct research for the purpose of developing better educational methods and strategies at schools, to study local problems in educational institutions, to submit reports to Ministry of National Education representatives in the city, to coordinate the yearly programs rendered by guidance and psychological counseling units in schools, to identify needs and organize in-service training for guidance and psychological counselors working in schools, to carry out individual and group counseling and therapy services for students with emotional and behavioral problems and their parents (who are referred by the schools), to identify students with special educational needs, to prepare individual educational programs, and to apply individual and group tests at the centers. In carrying out their function of remediation for students with problems, the centers are expected to refer children with extreme problems to the medical centers located at nearby university hospitals. It seems that the responsibilities and functions of Guidance and Research Centers resemble the tasks of school psychologists in Western countries (Dölek et al, 1989).
The scope of psychological services in schools is quite extensive. The most frequent direct services to students involve vocational and academic guidance and personal counseling. Other direct services include testing, group counseling, and consultation with teachers and parents. Diagnosing emotional and behavioral problems in pupils and applying interventions are given priority. Identifying learning disabilities and providing curriculum-based interventions to teachers in order to modify behavioral and academic problems in the classroom are tasks that are seldom performed. Few materials are available for remedial work in the subject area. Those working in private schools may also take part in selecting students at the primary level, even at kindergarten. For that purpose, psychological counselors in primary schools use standardized or nonstandardized assessment techniques, observations, and interviews with applicants for kindergarten and first grade. In private schools, psychological counselors often are also responsible for organizing seminars, lectures, and group guidance on children’s development and needs for parents and teachers. Referrals are generally made by teachers and involve behavioral, emotional, and/or learning problems, but services usually focus on individual counseling or working with parents rather than working with teachers. Generally, teachers report that they do not receive adequate support. Students are often referred to professionals in therapy centers or hospital mental health clinics; these professionals are usually psychiatrists who are mostly medication-oriented or psychologists in private practice who apply therapeutic approaches.
In 2001-2002, the Ministry of National Education published a report about the tests commonly used in Guidance and Research Centers. According to the report, tests used include Beier Sentence Completion, Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, Children’s Apperception Test, Cattell Intelligence Test, Denver Developmental Screening Test, Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test for children with visual impairment, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised.
Current Issues Impacting Psychological Services in Turkey
From the beginning, according to the laws and bylaws regulating psychological services, in schools and in Guidance and Research Centers, counseling was not seen as a separate unit but as a supplementary unit of the Special Education Department of the Ministry of National Education. This attitude can create two situations: one in which counselors specialize in different disciplines, such as sociology, special education, and philosophy, and a second in which psychologists, counselors, and special education specialists are appointed by the Ministry of National Education to provide psychological services in the schools without any distinction between their roles and functions.
The debate on how to organize psychological services in the schools and how to train professionals in this area has been ongoing; no consensus has yet been attained. Although many of the school psychology practices in other countries are also carried out in Turkey, either by guidance and psychological counselors in the schools or by Guidance and Research Centers, no independent and well-defined specialization in school psychology exists in Turkey. This leads to ambiguity in role definitions and conflicts among counselors, psychologists, special educators, and social workers. Furthermore, the Ministry of National Education appoints professionals who specialize in disciplines other than psychological counseling and psychology, such as sociology, education, and philosophy, to provide psychological services in schools. This creates another problem with the advocacy of professional rights. Significant numbers of psychological counselors labor under inadequate work conditions. They frequently lack adequate supervision, secretarial support, appropriate assessment techniques, and adequate time in which to perform duties. Other work-related difficulties include a lack of economic resources and a lack of knowledge among school personnel and parents about the nature of work school psychological personnel can perform.
Many professionals working for psychological services in the school system report problems with teachers and school administrations. Conflicts are associated with the diffusion of their professional roles within schools, making compromises between organizational limitations and professional standards, and receiving little personal recognition for contributions to the progress of individuals or schools. On the other hand, a sense of comradeship among psychological counselors is strong, peer supervision is a common practice, and contact with professional colleagues is frequent.
The quality of psychological services in Guidance and Research Centers and schools is largely affected by the limited number of standardized counseling tools, such as interest, aptitude, intelligence, and personality tests, and sufficient literature and research in the field. Although there is a great demand for graduate studies, the number of programs and number of students accepted each year at the graduate level are currently very limited. According to the Bologna Declaration of the European Union (1999), Turkey should reform its higher institutional programs to be consistent with the European Union standards; eventually this will promote change in the infrastructure of psychological services in the schools. Interest and motivation in the profession are still high among psychological counselors. This is an important and positive factor favoring the continuing development of psychological services for the children of Turkey.