Rita Thalmann. Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. Editor: Dinah L Shelton, Volume 2, Macmillan Reference USA, 2005.
According to a 1938 report published by the organization called Reíchsueriretung der Juden, Kristallnacht, the action launched against the Jews within the Reich (then consisting of Germany and Austria), was a historical turning point. “Crystal Night” refers to the tons of shattered window glass after Jewish-owned businesses and homes were destroyed. A document issued by Joachim von Ribbentrop’s Foreign Ministry on January 25, 1939 to all German diplomatic and consular services, provided the justification for the Kristallnacht action. Under the title, “The Jewish Question, a Factor in Our Foreign Policy,” it stated,
It is not by chance that 1938, the year of our destiny, saw the realization of our plan for Greater Germany as well as a major step towards the solution of the Jewish problem … This disease in the body of our people had to be eradicated first before the Great German Reich could assemble its forces to overcome the will of the world.
Months earlier, in November 1937, Adolf Hitler had told his followers that “the determination to secure the safety and the expansion of the racial community implied such risks” as the use of force and of war if necessary. Since Hitler’s rise to power in January 1933, he had successfully crushed his opponents at home, excluded and isolated the Jews of Germany and Austria, rearmed and proceeded with the military occupation of the Rhineland despite the provisions of the Versailles Treaty of 1919.
The unwillingness of Germany’s neighbors (notably France and the United Kingdom), to challenge Hitler all but guaranteed his success. Hitler also supported Franco’s military putsch against the Spanish Republic, and annexed neighboring Austria. These actions created a flood of Jewish refugees seeking safety in other European nations and in the United States. In July 1938, U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt convened an international summit to urge the delegates from thirty-two attending nations to open their borders to the refugees. This meeting, known as the Evian Conference, failed dismally. Instead, Polish and Hungarian observers requested that they, too, be relieved of their Jews.
When France and Britain signed the Munich Agreements in September 1938 and abandoned their Czech ally to Hitler’s advance, they gave free rein to Hitler’s territorial demands. With this, the situation in Europe passed what Berthold Brecht called Hitler’s “resistable ascent.” Hitler continued in his aggressive policies, including his treatment of the Jews. He was encouraged further when France’s Premier Edouard Daladier, representing the Evian Intergovernment Committee, declared in a memorandum to the Ribbentrop ministry that “none of the States (members of the Committee) would dispute the absolute right of the German government to take with regard to certain of its citizens such measures as are within its own sovereign powers.”
Such was the context in which the Jews were terrorized into emigrating. In October 1938 they were driven out of the recently annexed Sudetenland and on the nights of October 29 approximately 17,000 Jews were expelled from Germany to the Polish border. Berlin did this in anticipation of Warsaw’s decision to revoke Polish passports if their bearers had lived abroad for more than five years. On November 3, 1938, Herschel Grynszpân, a young Polish Jewish refugee living in hiding at his uncle’s home in Paris, received a postcard from his sister informing him that his family, settled in Hanover since 1911, had been expelled and were now confined, penniless, in the Polish border village of Zbazsyn. The next day the Yiddish newspaper, Pariser Haint, published a detailed account of the inhumane conditions of this act of massive deportation.
After forty-eight hours of feverish agitation, Grynszpân came to a decision. On Monday morning, November 7, 1938, he purchased a gun and went to the German Embassy in Paris. He gained entry by saying he had to deliver an important document, but once inside he fired five shots at the Third Secretary, Ernst vom Rath, the only diplomat then present. Badly hurt, vom Rath was taken to a neighboring clinic. The embassy porters handed Grynszpân over to the French police. He offered no resistance. Hitler heard of the attempt against vom Rath that same evening, and dispatched his personal physician to the embassy official’s bedside. A few days later, on November 9, Hitler learned that vom Rath had died of his wounds. In response, he gave his chief propagandist, Joseph Goebbels, permission to launch a pogrom against the Jews of the Third Reich.
Grynszpân’s attempt against the life of a representative of the Third Reich was by no means the first one.
In February 1936, a young Jewish student named David Frankfurter had shot down the leader of Swiss Nazis, Wilhelm Gustloff, in Davos, Switzerland. At the time Hitler had vetoed reprisals against Jews, for fear of international reactions that might compromise his military plan (the reoccupation of the Rhineland) or disqualify Berlin as the host site for the Olympic games to be held in July of that year. By then, however, Hitler was far more confident. His goal now was to make Germany Judenrein (“Free of Jews”).
Although the pogrom that Goebbels set in motion on the night of November 9, 1938 was later hailed as a “spontaneous wave of righteous indignation,” the Sturm Abteilung (SA, “storm trooper unit”) and the Schutzstaffel (SS, “protective corps”) were actually in charge of the violent action. Their mission was explicit: preserve Aryan property, isolate the main Jewish institutions and seize their archives before they were destroyed, and arrest approximately 30,000 Jewish men (later to be herded into concentration camps); such were the duties of the SA and the SS, according to the instructions issued by Goebbels, Reinhard Heydrich, Obergruppenfuehrer of the SS, and the chief of the Gestapo in Berlin.
The reports of Nazi leaders, diplomats, journalists stationed in the Reich, and victims who succeeded in emigrating before October 1941 give only approximate results of the Kristallnacht pogrom: dozens of suicides—among them a young couple in Stuttgart and their two little boys (one two-year-old and another who was only a few months old). A report from the Chief Judge of the Nazi Party’s Supreme Court mentioned 91 dead and 36 injured, and went on to condemn those Nazi participants who raped Jews during Kristallnacht—for “defiling the race.” No less than 267 synagogues and places of worship as well as 7,500 shops not yet “Aryanized” (taken over from Jewish owners) and hundreds of dwellings were looted and smashed.
In the evening of November 10, Goebbels officially called a halt to the pogrom. Reichsmarschall Hermann Wilhelm Göring, who was in charge of making decisions for the whole Reich, now enacted new laws intended, he claimed, “to harmonize the solution of the Jewish problem to its logical outcome.” He chaired a meeting November 12, 1938 at the Air Ministry for senior ministers, the chiefs of police and security, and other influential Nazis and announced his new policies. Jews were now required to pay a million mark fine; their property (already registered according to a 1938 law) was to be confiscated, and their assets exchanged for government bonds. Compensation for property losses paid to them by insurance companies was also confiscated by the State.
Beginning on January 1, 1939, Jews were barred from conducting business or visiting public places except those designated for them. A Reich Central Office for Jewish Emigration was created in Germany modeled on one that Adolf Eichmann had established in Austria. Jewish associations were ordered to disband and their property was transferred to the Central Organization of German Jews, which was now under the authority of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA; Nazi Department of Security). The issue of forcing Jews to wear special identifying insignia and herding them into ghettos was discussed, but the idea was shelved for the moment, because Göring believed that ghettoization would be achieved naturally as the Jews grew increasingly destitute.
Despite the international indignation aroused by the scope and the violence of Kristallnacht, democratic countries were not inclined to open their borders to the victims. On November 11, 1938, Switzerland signed an agreement with Germany, promising to prohibit German Jews from entering Swiss territory. The countries of Scandinavia suggested settling the Jews outside Europe. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain agreed under pressure to allow 500 Jewish refugees per week into Britain, but he also blocked their entry into Palestine.
The French Premier, Daladier, was on delicate ground, because he had reached an accommodation with Germany and was set to sign a treaty of friendship and cooperation on December 6, of 1938. Complaining that France had already admitted many Jews (at that time, approximately 30,000), he offered to take in a few more as long as doing so would not jeopardize France’s rapprochement with Germany. In front of more than 200 journalists, U.S. President Roosevelt recalled his ambassador to Germany “for consultation.” This, however, was a hollow gesture, for Roosevelt had no intention of taking retaliatory measures against Hitler. American Jewish organizations suggested that he authorize an increase in the immigration quotas for European Jews—even if only temporarily—but he declined to do so.
A few days later, on November 23, the New York Times published the translation of an article that had appeared in Das Schwarze Korps, an SS publication known for its extreme anti-Jewish policy: “At this stage of development we must therefore face the hard necessity of exterminating the Jewish underworld in the same manner in which in this state of order we exterminate criminals generally: by fire and by the sword.”
Grynszpân, whose act of anger and grief against the German embassy in France provided the excuse for Kristallnacht, disappeared from history after being handed over by Vichy government to the Germans. The pogrom that ensued, however, was indeed a turning point in the official Nazi policy on Jews. Unfortunately, the Third Reich’s threat to exterminate all Jews, openly declared by the SS on November 23, 1938, was ignored by France, England, and the United States, as was Hitler’s own threat, two months later, to exterminate all the Jews of Europe.