Donald K McKim. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices. Editor: Thomas Riggs, 2nd Edition, Volume 1, Gale, 2015.
Overview
The United Church of Christ (UCC), founded in the United States in 1957, is the product of the merging of the Congregational Church, Christian Churches (or Christian Connexion), German Reformed Church, and German Evangelical Church. With common commitments to Christian unity and theological openness, these groups went through several mergers prior to the creation of the United Church of Christ. The UCC is recognized as one of the most theologically and socially progressive of the mainline American Protestant denominations. Its central theological tenets are historically related to theological traditions that emerged from the 16th-century Protestant Reformation—a religious and political movement in western Europe whose aim was to reform certain practices of the Catholic Church and to make the church more accessible to all people, not just the privileged or wealthy.
These convictions include salvation by God’s grace through faith in Jesus Christ, Scripture as the primary means of knowing God, the church as the gathered community of God’s people, and the conviction that the Gospel of Jesus Christ must be shared with all people. The church became the first historically white denomination to ordain an African American pastor; the first to ordain a woman to the ministry; the first to ordain an openly gay man; and the first to affirm marriage as a right for same-sex couples. The UCC sees itself as “a church of extravagant welcome,” believing that God is all loving and inclusive, and calls on the church and its members to do the same.
The bodies that formed the United Church of Christ in 1957 were American Protestant denominations with roots in European church movements. While diverse in history and orientations, the four groups shared Reformed theological roots and emphasized their common unity. During the formation of the UCC, the denominations adopted a congregational polity, which is a form of church government that gives local congregations autonomy in church beliefs and life, while conferences, associations, and the general synod of the church provide guidance. However, the basic unit of church government is the individual congregation, and only individual local churches can modify their actions and practices. With roots that go back to the 17th-century Pilgrims in New England who sought religious freedom; through involvement with anti-slavery and missionary movements and progressive social action; and to the ordination of women and homosexuals and involvement in civil rights, the United Church of Christ has been socially active. It also emphasizes ecumenical and interfaith church efforts, practices open and full communion with other church bodies, and seeks an overall “unity” in the body of Christ, which the name of the denomination implies. The UCC seeks to live the prayer of Jesus: “that they may all be one” (John 17:21).
With membership only in the United States (with the exception of four congregations in Canada that are part of the church’s North Dakota Conference), the UCC is not a global church. It is, however, one of several merged Christian communions internationally that share the name “United Church.” In 2013 the church had nearly a million members throughout the United States in more than 5,100 local churches, with the Northeast and Midwest claiming the most followers. The UCC’s contemporary identity is rooted in its history, especially in its progressive and liberal social views and emphases on social action. In the early 21st century the denomination supports abortion rights, U.S. civil rights, sex education, and same-sex marriage. It is a strong advocate for economic justice, especially for children, and advocates for those with disabilities and mental health issues. The UCC is also involved in environmental ministries, supports inclusive immigration policies, and works for health care and human services for all people. It has been active in HIV and AIDS ministries and in the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) and same-gender-loving (SGL) communities.
History
Congregationalism, the largest and oldest of the UCC’s member traditions, arose in the late 1500s as a protest against the Church of England (Anglican Church). The Pilgrims, who advocated total separation from the Church of England, and the Puritans, a larger and more influential group who hoped to change and purify the church, migrated to New England in the early 17th century. They established independent local congregations of believers (from which the name “Congregationalist” derives) that, rather than a national or regional body, defined the “true church.” Both Congregational groups adapted the ideas of reformer John Calvin (1509-1564) to the American environment and considered religious homogeneity in church and community essential.
The Christian Churches, the UCC’s smallest and only indigenous strain, emerged in the early 1800s as a diverse, Bible-based fellowship. Arriving at similar conclusions about the nature of church and faith, defectors from three groups—Baptists in New England, Methodists in Virginia, and Presbyterians in Kentucky—gathered in small churches in the early 1800s in rural and frontier America. Eschewing creeds, confessions, and the formalities of both church life and traditional theology, they accepted the Bible as their sole authority, rejected sectarianism, and insisted that right action, rather than right belief, was the most important factor in a Christian’s life. Members embraced theological positions ranging from Unitarian to evangelical. In 1931, drawn together by common commitments to church unity and theological openness, the General Convention of Christian Churches merged with the National Council of Congregational Churches, becoming the Congregational Christian Churches.
The German Reformed came to the American East and Midwest in two separate migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries to escape war, poverty, and social unrest in their homeland. Theologically similar to Congregationalists, the Reformed differed in their understanding of “church” as an aggregate, unified by common worship and polity rather than as a group of individual congregations. The UCC’s second-largest tradition, the German Reformed also had an ecumenical bent.
The German Evangelicals, forming the youngest UCC tradition, began migrating to Illinois and Missouri in the 1830s. Independent, open-minded, and often indifferent to doctrinal particularities, they stood for the tradition of “unionistic” Protestantism that had flourished in their homeland. In the United States they were influenced not only by their isolation on the frontier but also by Swiss missionaries who emphasized the importance of religious experience over theology. Strong ecumenical commitments and ties of history and ethnicity led the German Reformed Church to unite with the General Convention of the Evangelical Synod in 1934, becoming the Evangelical and Reformed Church.
Recognizing similarities in their history, theology, and social commitments, leaders of these two larger bodies—the Congregational Christian Churches and the Evangelical and Reformed Church—began informal conversations in 1937. Questions over independence, authority, and legality postponed the union until 1957, when they became the United Church of Christ.
The denomination has declined in membership since its inception. When it was formed in 1957, it had over two million members in more than 7,000 churches. The church’s 2013 Annual Yearbook lists 998,906 members in 5,154 local churches, as well as seven theological seminaries and 18 colleges officially related to the church.
Central Doctrines
The heritage of the United Church of Christ is essentially orthodox: Most adherents believe in the Trinity (one God existing in three persons—the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), claim as their own the ancient creeds and reformulations of the Protestant Reformation, rely on the Bible as the religious authority, and recognize the two sacraments of baptism and Communion. Within that orthodoxy, theological perspectives vary from evangelical to liberal, though the latter dominates. The original and continuing need to mediate differences among the four constituent traditions necessitates theological openness. The UCC is known for its diversity, and most members agree with a saying common among Protestant humanists in the 16th century: “In essentials, unity; in non-essentials, liberty; in all things, charity.”
Historically, the various church bodies that formed the UCC accepted as doctrinal guides the Nicene and Apostles’ Creed of the early church; Small Catechism (1529) by Martin Luther (1483-1546) and the Heidelberg Catechism (1563) of the Reformation period; the Kansas City Statement of Faith (1913); the Evangelical Catechism (1927); and the Statement of Faith of the United Church of Christ, written at the founding of the denomination (1957).
Perspectives about the nature of the church also vary, but members generally agree that the UCC is founded on the Bible, the writings of the Protestant reformers, and the inspired understandings of each new generation. In believing that Jesus Christ is the sole head of the church, they affirm that all human leadership is equal and that all members share a common Christian experience and a responsibility for the church’s mission in the world, which is to proclaim the Gospel through Scripture, sacrament, and witness; to gather and support communities of the faithful for celebration and mission; to manifest more fully the unity of church, humankind, and creation; and to work to further God’s realm of justice, peace, and love.
Moral Code of Conduct
Though the Ten Commandments are part of its foundation, the UCC insists on no “black-and-white” moral or ethical codes. UCC members are expected—but never directed—to behave out of obedience to God, love for their neighbors, and respect for self, as specific situations demand. The church respects the right of private judgment in these situations and the need to allow for changing historical and cultural circumstances.
Sacred Books
Like other mainline Protestant denominations, the UCC sees the Bible as the foremost and final revelation of God’s word. However, members do not view it as a rulebook for Christian conduct or an accurate historical record but rather as the dramatic story of God’s grace, God’s people, and God’s mercy and admonishment through the ages. Members believe that the Bible, though divinely inspired, was written by human beings for a variety of purposes and audiences and that its primary purpose is to reveal God’s plan for the world and bring people to God’s redeeming love. Faithful interpretation requires an awareness of the particular contexts that influenced and limited the Bible’s writers, as well as a knowledge of contemporary realities.
Sacred Symbols
The UCC inherited from the 16th-century Swiss Reformation a general opposition to venerating religious images, and in its early history the church insisted on a simplicity of pulpit, font, and Communion table. The 19th and 20th centuries, however, saw an increasing use of visual symbolism. Some UCC members wear crosses as symbols of their faith and their fidelity to Christ, and most church sanctuaries include an altar cross, but these are not venerated or treated with ritual care.
Early and Modern Leaders
The UCC’s Congregational tradition has provided the greatest number of famous historical figures, including John Winthrop (1588-1649), lay leader and first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony; Richard Mather (1596-1669), Increase Mather (1639-1723), and Cotton Mather (1663-1728), architects and historians of the “New England way,” which emphasized the independence of local churches and the church community as a way of life; and Washington Gladden (1836-1918), pastor and pioneer of the Social Gospel movement, which sought to apply Christian ethics to the social problems of the early 20th century and to motivate Christian churches to active roles in meeting the needs of the poor and needy. In 1853 Antoinette Brown Blackwell (1825-1921) became the first Congregationalist woman to be ordained.
Revivalist Charles Grandison Finney (1792-1875), associated with both the Presbyterian and Congregational churches, helped introduce Arminian theology into the solidly Calvinist Congregational tradition. (Jacobus Arminius’s doctrines opposed the absolute predestination of strict Calvinism and maintained the possibility of salvation for all.) Finney later became president of Oberlin College.
Among other UCC leaders were Elias Smith (1764-1846) and Abner Jones, the publishers of the first religious newspaper in the Christian tradition, the Herald of Gospel Liberty, and such civil rights activists as Andrew Young (1932- ) and Benjamin Chavis (1948- ).
Major Theologians and Authors
The denomination’s most famous theologian is Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), a Congregationalist and major figure in the “Great Awakening” revivalist movement of the 1740s. From the Reformed tradition, John Williamson Nevin (1803-1886) and Philip Schaff (1819-1893) helped shape the path of ecumenical progress in the mid-19th century. German evangelicals and brothers Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971) and H. Richard Niebuhr (1894-1962) were internationally prominent 20th-century theologians who helped articulate a Scripture-based movement that became known as neoorthodoxy.
Prominent UCC figures in contemporary times include theologian Donald G. Bloesch (1928-2010) and minister/activist William Sloane Coffin Jr. (1924-2006). Also noteworthy are systematic theologian and ecumenist Gabriel Fackre (1926- ); former seminary president and church history professor Barbara Brown Zikmund, who is an expert on theological education and women’s issues; ethicist Max L. Stackhouse (1935- ); theologian Ronald Cole-Turner (1948- ), a noted specialist on issues of science and faith; and biblical scholar Walter Brueggemann (1933-).
Organizational Structure
The UCC’s government contains both autonomous and cooperative elements. Local churches are independent but are grouped in associations, which have responsibilities for ordaining, installing, and disciplining pastors; for receiving (and dismissing) churches; and for caring generally for the welfare of local congregations in the area. Associations are subunits of larger conferences, which provide services, counsel, venues for common mission, and administrative support to churches and associations. The general synod, the national representative body, issues pronouncements and sets priorities for the denomination but speaks “to, not for” the churches.
Houses of Worship and Holy Places
UCC houses of worship range from simple white clapboard buildings—the familiar “New England meetinghouse”—to the substantial stone and stained-glass churches of Pennsylvania and other regions. The trend for new churches is to create multipurpose buildings with flexible space for both worship and other activities.
What is Sacred
UCC members typically do not recognize either places or particular objects as inherently holy or sacred. Rather, God is sacred, and the holiness inherent in religious gatherings (where members worship or do the work of God) derives from the sacredness of God.
Holidays and Festivals
Like other Protestant groups, the UCC emphasizes Christmas (December 25) and Easter. Because of contacts with other churches and new members from more liturgical traditions (such as those with a German heritage), local churches are increasingly observing Lent (40 days preceding Easter), culminating in Maundy (Holy) Thursday and Good Friday services; Advent (season leading up to Christmas); and Pentecost (50 days after Easter). Some United Churches also mark Passion Sunday (fifth Sunday of Lent), Ascension Day (40th day of Easter), and Reformation Day (October 31) with special preaching or prayers.
Mode of Dress
During services UCC pastors generally wear a white alb (full-length, long-sleeved vestment), black Geneva gown, or academic-style robe and a stole, the color of which is determined by the season of the church year. Casual or street dress is the rule outside of church. Some of the clergy, particularly those of Evangelical and Reformed background, wear a clerical collar when conducting worship, and a few wear it when in street dress. A minority prefer to wear no clerical garb at all, arguing that since ministry is the responsibility of all the people of God, clergy should not dress distinctively.
Dietary Practices
Members of the United Church of Christ observe no notable dietary restrictions.
Rituals
The UCC prescribes no particular ritual forms. Although the Congregational-Christian tradition had a common format for service, they had no set prayers and were historically devoid of other ritual. Many UCC churches still closely follow services in the Pilgrim Hymnal or Free Church Worship Book. The influence of the Evangelical and Reformed Church and ties with other churches have moved the UCC toward greater formality, especially in the Eucharistic liturgy and in settings and events beyond the local church. Public celebrations are often innovative within the boundaries of tradition and sometimes involve the arts. Individual members typically develop private rituals, such as prayer, meditation, journal writing, and other devotional practices.
Rites of Passage
The UCC’s Book of Worship offers alternatives from both contemporary and traditional sources for sacraments, marriages, funerals, dedications, installations of pastors and church officers, leave-takings, and confirmation. Like other churches in the Reformed theological tradition, the UCC practices infant baptism, during which children of Christian parents are baptized as a sign of God’s covenant love. Children acknowledge their baptisms and are formally accepted as church members during confirmation, which typically takes place at the age of 12 or older. Previously, children received their First Communion at confirmation, but parents are increasingly allowing younger children to take Communion, believing that children need to do nothing to merit grace.
Membership
Evangelization has become more important to the UCC as the U.S. population becomes more diverse. The church is formally committed to becoming a multicultural, multiracial communion, accessible to all, and has focused its evangelizing efforts on various ethnic groups—including African American, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian—and religious traditions, such as Armenian Evangelical, German Congregational, and Hungarian Reformed. These religious and ethnic groups, outside the UCC’s four founding communions, have significantly informed and influenced the contemporary church. Though not in great numbers, members of these groups play a highly visible role in UCC leadership.
In 2003 the denomination instituted advertising and marketing campaigns to increase its name recognition and visibility. These included emphases on evangelism and hospitality training for local congregations. The “God Is Still Speaking” campaign and the “Still Speaking Initiative” emphasized the UCC belief that God continues to speak to the church and leads it into new ministries that carry out God’s mission in the world. A key motto was: “Never place a period where God has placed a comma.” This conviction has led the church in its ongoing social involvements and mission work.
The UCC has begun to use new technologies to seek members, specifically through its official Web site (http://www.ucc.org), identity videos, and internally produced television programs. The church’s official Web site offers information for members and prospective members. It includes members’ stories as well as information about local congregations, upcoming events, and church history.
Religious Tolerance
Born out of the passionate desire for church unity among its founders and formed in an era of social upheaval, the UCC is open, inclusive, and tolerant of diversity, both theologically and structurally. The founders chose an inclusive name, without historical antecedent. The UCC participates in national and international ecumenical discussions, including the National and World Councils of Churches, Churches Uniting in Christ, and the World Alliance of Reformed Churches, now the World Communion of Reformed Churches, and has relationships with other churches around the globe.
Social Justice
One of the most socially active American Protestant churches, the UCC has taken strong and often controversial stands against numerous injustices, in particular racism, war, and economic oppression. The general synod, individual conferences, and local churches regularly take action and issue formal pronouncements about social issues, including opposition to the death penalty, sexual harassment, and sexism, and support of the right of women to choose abortion, and of gay rights. The UCC routinely accepts openly gay and lesbian applicants into the ordained ministry and other leadership positions.
The Puritans placed a high value on an educated electorate, and the UCC has supported public schools.
Social Life
Like other Protestant denominations, the UCC supports marriage and strong family ties yet recognizes that, given human imperfection, marriages must sometimes be dissolved through divorce proceedings. Many members also recognize nontraditional families. An increasing number of United Church ministers conduct services of union for same-sex couples, arguing that committed partnership should be blessed, not rejected, by the church.
Founded in 1972, the UCC Coalition for LGBT Concerns is a national organization that advocates for members of the church who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender. The organization works to encourage those UCC congregations that have not yet openly welcomed members of the LGTB community to do so. Among its many other outreach efforts, the organization also advocates for LGBT youth, promotes marriage equality, and works to support LGBT refugees and asylum seekers.
Controversial Issues
In the mid-17th century disagreements over the “Half-Way Covenant” led to a major controversy in Puritan Congregational communities. Puritans granted church membership only to people with a personal experience of conversion or revelation, and though the children of the original Puritan colony had been baptized, few had conversion experiences. Thus, when they wanted their own children baptized, they were denied this privilege because they were not church members themselves. This created a crisis in Congregational churches. Some compromised their strict ideals by allowing these children to be baptized; these churches subscribed to what they called the Half-Way Covenant. Other Puritan Congregationalists wanted to keep the stricter rule.
In the 19th century Charles Grandison Finney’s introduction of Arminian theology, the basic position of the Methodists, into the Calvinist Congregationalist tradition caused some controversy. Finney opposed John Calvin’s idea of predestination (in which only those selected by God could be saved), instead believing that every person has the choice to accept God’s offer of salvation.
Since the founding of the United Church of Christ in 1957, UCC members have debated various issues, including labor organizing, abortion, war, and sexual orientation. Often the lines between theology and politics have been blurred in critiques of the denomination’s activities. In particular, while the majority of UCC congregations have supported church decisions, some withdrew when the church began to ordain gay people and support same-sex marriages. Some have joined other denominations, others have become independent congregations, and still others have withheld financial support for the church’s global missions. One such group that has been opposed to a number of positions and actions taken by the UCC is the evangelical renewal group Biblical Witness Fellowship. Its purpose is to “renew spiritual vitality through faith in Jesus Christ.”
Cultural Impact
The Puritan tradition of the UCC—particularly the strong work ethic, the insistence on an educated electorate, and the idea that the local community should be free to govern its own affairs—has had a profound influence on American culture in the areas of commerce, education, and politics. Many men and women of letters were among early New England Congregationalists, including Puritan poet Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672), who was the first female author published in the American colonies; poet and journalist William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878);renowned poets Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) and Emily Dickinson (1830-1886);and poet and critic James Russell Lowell (1819-1891).
In the 20th and 21st centuries UCC members who have had an impact on culture in various ways include President Barack Obama (1961- );Senator William Proxmire (1915-2005);journalist and public commentator Bill Moyers (1934- );social activist and civil rights leader Julian Bond (1940- );novelist and Pulitzer Prize winner Marilynne Robinson (1943- );and politician and diplomat Andrew Young (1932- ).