Nelly van Doorn-Harder. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices. Editor: Thomas Riggs, 2nd Edition, Volume 1, Gale, 2015.
Overview
According to tradition, Christianity was introduced to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in 48 CE, and it is to this event that the Coptic Orthodox Church traces its origins. The Coptic Orthodox Church adheres to the original apostolic traditions, which are based on third-century writings concerning liturgies, dogmas, and church organization. Copts believe their church to be a living extension of the first-century communities that were started in Rome by the apostles Peter and Paul.
The name “Copt” is derived from Qibt, the Arabic translation of the Greek Aigyptios, itself a derivation of Hikuptah, a reference to Memphis, the capital of ancient Egypt. During the first Christian centuries, when Egypt was part of the Roman Empire, Copts contributed to the development of the monastic life and Christian theology as formulated by the ecumenical councils of Nicea (325), Constantinople (381), and Ephesus (431). After Arab rule replaced the Byzantine Empire in Egypt in 641-42, Christianity was slowly overshadowed by Islam through intermarriage, conversion, and natural causes such as outbreaks of plague that decimated the Christian community. The majority of the contemporary Egyptian Muslim population is of Coptic origin. In spite of its minority position, the Coptic Church was able to survive, and beginning in the 1950s Coptic Christianity experienced a religious revival. This was followed by Coptic immigration to Western countries starting in the 1960s.
Firm numbers about the Coptic Orthodox population are lacking. The number of Copts in Egypt is, according to various estimates, seven to nine million, or about 10 percent of the Egyptian population. More than one million Copts have immigrated to the Western world, including more than 500,000 living in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Considerable communities can be found in Europe, and churches have been established in Latin America and as far east as Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Missionary activities in sub-Saharan Africa, and the presence of Coptic immigrant workers in North Africa and the Persian Gulf, have brought the total number of Copts in those regions to around 500,000. In spite of sectarian violence in Egypt that has persisted since the 1980s, the Coptic Orthodox Church has consistently followed a path of reconciliation and active participation in society. Through its Bishopric of Youth, the church runs multilevel projects focusing on questions of citizenship and interfaith. Furthermore, Coptic schools, vocational training centers, health care clinics, and social development initiatives serve Muslims as well as Christians.
History
Having introduced Christianity to Egypt in the first century, Saint Mark is recognized as the original patriarch, or pope, of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Copts credit rapid acceptance of the Christian faith to lingering memories of the Holy Family (Mary, Joseph, and the baby Jesus) staying in Egypt and the presence of many Jews, who had already familiarized Egyptians with HP the concept of one God. At times Christians were persecuted by the Roman emperors. Indeed, so many Christians were murdered during the rule of Diocletian, from 284 to 305, that the Coptic Church started its calendar at the year of his enthronement in order to commemorate the martyrs on whose blood its faith was built. After the Edict of Milan (313), Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, and many Egyptians embraced the Christian faith. By the fourth century Egyptian Christians started to withdraw into the desert, seeking to prove their devotion to God by living a consecrated life of asceticism, seclusion, and prayer. The monastic movement, as it came to be known, played a critical role in establishing the principles of total submission to God’s will and humility as hallmarks of Coptic Christianity.
The Coptic Orthodox Church uses the original liturgies written by Basil of Alexandria (330-375) and Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329-c. 389) and follows the decisions of the councils of Nicea, Constantinople, and Ephesus. During an era that was marred by doctrinal controversies, especially concerning the nature of Christ, these councils were called by the successive emperors in order to establish the central tenets and dogmas to be observed by churches throughout the empire.
One of the main points of conflict centered on the teachings of Arius (c. 250-336), who maintained that Christ, having been created by God, was not equally eternal. The Council of Nicea countered Arius’s teachings, declaring him heretical; the Nicene Creed (325), formulated with the help of Athanasius from Alexandria (reigned 328-73), affirmed Christ to be fully one with God. This theme continued in the two ensuing councils. As different parties refined their ideas about Christ’s divinity and humanity, they also came to represent opinions in the eastern and western parts of the Byzantine Empire.
The first crack in the unity of Christendom appeared during the Council of Constantinople, when the churches of Rome and Constantinople declared their primacy over the Church of Alexandria. The Council of Ephesus was called to reject the teachings of Nestorius (d. c. 451), the Archbishop of Constantinople, who held that Christ had been born a mere human being. Cyril of Alexandria (412-444) defended the Virgin Mary’s long-used title of Theotokos (the Mother of God), and Nestorius was declared a heretic. The Council of Chalcedon (451) proclaimed Christ to be of dual nature, both divine and human, a doctrine the Copts could not accept. For more than a century thereafter, various emperors tried but failed to promote a single unifying doctrine. By the seventh century a schism had occurred between the churches of the East, including the Coptic Church, and those of Rome and Constantinople. This split, which ran along religious, geographical, and political lines, has endured through modern times.
In 629 Byzantium tried to suppress Coptic Christianity, replacing the Coptic patriarch with a Byzantine church ruler. After the Arabs invaded Egypt in 641-42, the Copts were initially allowed to practice their religion freely. Coptic Christians remained the religious majority in Egypt until the Middle Ages, withstanding sporadic persecutions by Muslims. Copts remained in the secondary status of dhimmis (protected citizens, or wards) until the Hamayouni Decree was issued by the Ottoman Empire in 1856 (under pressure from Europe in the aftermath of the Crimean War), granting civil, political, and military equality to Muslims and non-Muslims alike.
Additionally in the 19th century, as Egypt was significantly modernized under the rule of Mohammed Ali (ruled 1805-48), Copts enjoyed new economic and educational opportunities. This laid the groundwork for a revival of the Coptic Church that has continued into the 21st century. The impetus for this resurgence came from the Sunday School Movement (1918), which expanded and improved religious education, inspiring scores of young Copts to enter church vocations as monks, nuns, deacons, deaconesses, or Sunday school teachers. Coptic culture blossomed into new forms of religious art, music, architecture, and visual culture. During the 20th century Coptic history was rediscovered with, for example, many archaeological projects, and the renewal also entailed intensified practicing of the faith and increased study of Coptic spirituality, theology, and the lives of saints.
Copts fought alongside Muslims in Egypt against the British occupation (1882-1922), leading to relatively peaceful relations between Muslims and Christians. Twice a Copt briefly served as prime minister (Boutros Ghali, 1908-10; Youssef Wahba, 1919-20). The atmosphere changed, however, during the 1940s, when the Muslim Brotherhood (founded in 1928 to oppose British imperial rule) started to propagate a conservative Islamist agenda.
When a 1952 revolution brought Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-1970) to power, he introduced land reforms that deprived Copts of 75 percent of their wealth and much of their social and political influence, touching off a wave of emigration that led to the establishment of Coptic communities in North America, Europe, and Australia. Even so, Nasser presided over a secular Egypt, suppressing the Muslim Brotherhood and ensuring a climate of relative safety for the Copts.
After Anwar el-Sadat (1918-1981) became president in 1970, however, he allowed the Muslim Brotherhood more freedom, and incidents of religious strife increased again. In 1980, when Sadat proclaimed the principles of Sharia (the religious code of Islam) to be the major source of national law, relations between Coptic leader Pope Shenouda III (1923-2012) and Sadat reached a breaking point. Sadat accused Shenouda of political interference and of planning a Coptic state, fueling more communal violence. Realizing he could not contain the Islamists, Sadat arrested his main opponents, including Shenouda, who was banished to a monastery from 1981 to 1985. During the regime of Hosni Mubarak (1928- ), from 1981 to 2011, attacks on Coptic churches, homes, and businesses continued. Sectarian strife intensified during the 1990s, and 23 incidents reached the level of massacres, with more than 20 casualties each time. Copts were particularly targeted on feast days, when they were engaged in public celebration. One of the most shocking incidents occurred on New Year’s Day in 2011: a bomb went off in the Church of the Two Saints in Alexandria, killing 23 and injuring 97.
Although Mubarak did not protect the Copts actively, he curbed radical Muslim groups by jailing many of their leaders. After he was ousted during the January 25 Revolution of 2011, democratic elections yielded a large victory for Muslim Brotherhood members and other Islamists. Muslim Brotherhood leader Mohamed Morsi (1951- ) was elected president in June 2012, and he soon granted himself unlimited powers and issued a new Islamist-inspired constitution, sparking mass protests. In the post-revolution chaos, assaults on churches, property, and individuals continued, including an unprecedented attack on the Cathedral in Abbasiya, the seat of the Coptic Orthodox Church, on April 7, 2013. Morsi was unseated in a military coup that July. In the months that followed, attacks on Copts by the Muslim Brotherhood intensified. In August 2013 alone, 40 churches in Egypt were reportedly burned and looted.
Central Doctrines
Cyril of Alexandria formulated the Coptic Christology, which holds that “Christ was perfect in His Divinity and perfect in His Humanity and that His Divinity never departed from His Humanity, not even for a single instant nor a twinkle of an eye. His Humanity is one with His Divinity without co-mixing, without confusion, without division, without separation.” This dogma affirming the single nature of Christ is the essential distinction for Coptic Christians; it separates the Coptic Church from the Western churches that accepted the Council of Chalcedon (451), which declared that Christ had unity of person but duality of natures.
Coptic Church life revolves around the seven sacraments: Eucharist, baptism, confirmation (with holy chrism, or holy oils), confession and absolution, anointing of the sick, and matrimony. Furthermore, there is the rite of consecration into one of the holy orders of priesthood. The Eucharist is at the core of Coptic religious life, and in order to participate in it, a person must be a full member of the Coptic Church through baptism and confirmation. A person may receive Communion only in a state of purity after confession and absolution and fasting.
Moral Code of Conduct
Copts in Egypt developed a moral code of conduct that, to a large extent, conforms to its Middle Eastern and Islamic environment. Believers rarely drink alcohol or eat pork, and forms of indulgence such as overeating or sleeping long hours are deemed incompatible with the ascetic character of the Coptic Church. Coptic society is patriarchal; although many contemporary Coptic women are successful professionals, men are considered to be the head of the family.
Sacred Books
Copts use two main liturgies: the Liturgy of Saint Basil for most of the year and the Liturgy of Saint Gregory of Nazianzus during the feasts. Certain parts of a third liturgy, Saint Cyril, are also used.
The lectionary (Katamaros), a study of the various stages of Christ’s life, is used throughout the liturgical year. The Agbiya, the book of the hours, contains the Psalms, prayers, and Gospels for the religion’s seven daily prayers. In addition, Copts use two psalmody books (Tasbeha) of doxologies (praise), one for the time of Advent and one for the rest of the year, and the Synaxarium, a book that commemorates Coptic saints. The Kulagi, used by priests, contains the evening and morning offerings of incense.
Parts of the sacred literature appear in the ancient Coptic language, which was derived from the pharaonic times and was spoken and written in a form of the Greek alphabet until about 1300 CE. Coptic, considered a sacred language, is an inherent part of the Coptic culture and identity.
Sacred Symbols
Apart from the Eucharist and liturgies in Coptic, the most sacred symbol in the Coptic Church is the cross, including a tattooed cross on a church member’s right wrist. Originally the tattoo was an identification mark so that Coptic children would not be mistaken for Muslims in times of upheaval. In modern times the cross has become a powerful marker of Christian identity in Egypt. Furthermore, Copts consider icons representing saints or scenes from the Bible to be potent portals that connect with the holy. In addition to the icons of Jesus and the Holy Virgin, popular themes are the flight to Egypt and Coptic saints such as Saint Dimyana and her Forty Virgins. Icons of the equestrian or military saints—Saint George and Saint Mercurius, who were officers in the Roman armies—have remained popular along with pictures of saintly individuals living in the 20th century, such as Bishop Abraam of Fayoum (1829-1914), Pope Kyrillos VI (1902-1971), and Mother Irini (1936-2006).
Early and Modern Leaders
Copts, who have never had access to political power, have long rallied around their patriarchs and bishops for guidance in both religious and secular affairs. They have had numerous prominent theologians, including Athanasius (c. 296-373), the church father who was exiled five times as a result of political and theological controversies. Patriarch Cyril the Great (378-444) violently persecuted non-Christians and fought Nestorius, who refused to acknowledge Saint Mary as the Mother of God. Cyril IV (1816-1861), called the Father of Reform, modernized the educational system, including the schooling of priests, and opened the first school for girls in Egypt. Cyril V (1824-1927) fought against foreign intrusion by Catholic and Protestant missionaries, and Cyril VI (1902-1971) spearheaded the modern revival of the Coptic Church.
Under Pope Shenouda III, the Coptic Church expanded nationally and internationally; monasteries flourished, new monastic sites were opened, religious education was expanded for lay Copts, the ranks of the clergy increased, and Coptic culture and art flourished. Important clerical leaders were Bishop Samuel (1921-1981), Bishop of Public, Ecumenical, and Social Affairs, who founded the first churches outside Egypt and stimulated Coptic mission work in Africa; Bishop Athanasius of Beni Suef (1923-2000), who created Coptic social services; and Bishop Anba Mousa (1938- ), who created special youth ministries. Traditionally, Coptic popes have been autocratic leaders, but Pope Tawadros II (1952- ), a pharmacist with a graduate degree from the United Kingdom, introduced the democratic impulse of the 2011 revolution into the church’s governance. For example, in order for the voices of women and youth to be heard, he created new councils to advise the ruling clergy. Like all popes, he maintained cordial relations with the Egyptian rulers, though he did openly criticize the Islamist government for ignoring the plight of the Copts.
Coptic lay leadership has been actively involved in religious matters, at times bolstering the church when its clerical leaders failed. Habib Girgis (1876-1951), dean of the Coptic Clerical College, started the Sunday School Movement. In search of a space to protect Christian antiquities, railway administrator Marcus Simaika (1864-1944) founded the Coptic Museum. Artist Isaac Fanous (1919-2007) studied icon painting in France and founded a school of modern Coptic art and iconography. Raghib Moftah (1898-2001), a musicologist, devoted his long life to preserving and annotating Coptic church music. The Ghali family, which counts among its members former Egyptian prime minister Boutros Ghali (1846-1910) and former general secretary of the United Nations Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1922- ), represents just one of several luminous Coptic bloodlines. Mother Irini, mother superior of the Convent of Saint Mercurius, became famous for her miracles of healing after intense prayers. She revived the monastic life for women, creating new forms of spiritual writings and visual arts to highlight women’s contributions to the history of Christianity.
Major Theologians and Authors
The catechetical school in Alexandria produced illustrious theologians such as Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-c. 215) and Origen (c. 185-c. 251). They framed their arguments within Greek philosophy, defending Christianity against gnosticism (a pre-Christian belief system privileging knowledge over faith) and paganism. Athanasius (c. 296-373) and Cyril the Great were both prolific theologians. Saint Anthony (c. 250-356) led the Copts in the development of solitary monasticism (asceticism practiced in solitude), while Saint Pachomius (c. 290-c. 346) originated the communal monastic life (asceticism practiced in a group living situation, such as a monastery). Shenute (348-451?) was the first theologian to write in the Coptic language. In the 13th century several writers, known as the Awlad al-Assal, translated Coptic theological texts into Arabic.
Father Matta el-Meskeen (1919-2006), the abbot of the Saint Macarius Monastery, was one of the most influential contemporary theologians and among the few whose work became famous in the West. Aziz Suryal Atiya (1898-1988), editor of the Coptic Encyclopedia, and Iris Habib el-Masri (1910-1994) were prolific church historians. Writer and journalist Milad Hanna (1924-2012) influenced Egyptian public opinion on questions of Coptic equality and citizenship. Pope Shenouda published more than 100 volumes on Coptic religious and theological issues. Father Tadros Y. Malaty, a theologian, wrote numerous books that were translated for Copts in diaspora, such as St. Mary in the Orthodox Concept (1978) and Introduction to the Coptic Orthodox Church (1993).
Organizational Structure
The Coptic Orthodox Church hierarchy is headed by the patriarch (or pope) of Alexandria. The pope chairs the Holy Synod, a council of bishops, all of whom are monks, representing the church’s highest governing authority. Under Pope Tawadros II, whose papacy began in 2012, the Holy Synod included approximately 110 bishops. The Coptic lay council facilitates relations between the church and the state, and the lay-clerical committee mediates between clergy and laity. Although Copts are legally recognized as Egyptian citizens, they must defer to Coptic Canon Law on matters of marriage and divorce, as well as other so-called “personal status” issues that are subject to religious, rather than civic, governance.
The Coptic Church participates in ecumenical dialogues and was among the founding members of the World Council of Churches, a global interchurch organization that was established in 1948. In 2013 the Coptic Orthodox Church joined with four other Christian churches in Egypt—the Catholic Church, the Evangelical (Presbyterian) Church, the Greek Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Church—to form the Egyptian Council of Churches. As the Christian community in Egypt faced social and political threats brought on by the revolutions of 2011 and 2013, the council was conceived as an affirmation of interdependence and a source of mutual support among all denominations.
Houses of Worship and Holy Places
In Coptic churches, the sanctuary is oriented to the east, where the Second Coming of Christ is expected to occur. The altar is located behind a screen, or iconostasis. Churches are decorated with icons, wall paintings, carved wood, stuccos, and fabrics. Women and men sit separately on either side of the church, in accordance with the Catechetical Lectures of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, in which he said, “Let men be with men, and women with women,” for the sake of decorum, as was the case on Noah’s ark.
Many churches, monasteries, and convents in Egypt stand on sites where the Holy Family stayed or that are connected to a saint or martyr. One of the most famous churches is the Muallaqa, or suspended church of the Virgin Mary, in Old Cairo. Built in the seventh century, it is located above a Roman fortress. With the community expanding, especially in urban areas, many churches were built during the time of Mubarak, and some have unique designs. For example, the church of Saint Simon the Tanner, located on Muqattam Mountain on the southeast edge of Cairo, an area that is home to 30,000 garbage collectors, is built in a cave and seats 20,000. The Monastery of Saint Macarius and the Anaphora retreat center, both located by a main road between Cairo and Alexandria, have become famous for their architectural designs and eco-friendly forms of producing food.
Outside Egypt, Copts have bought churches from other denominations and furnished them according to the requirements of the Coptic rite, until they could build their own according to Coptic design. Their campuses house buildings ranging from schools and community centers to a museum (at Saint Mark’s Church in Toronto) and a television studio (Logos TV in Los Angeles). The first church in North America was established in Toronto in 1965, followed by one in Los Angeles in 1969. The first cathedral was opened in Toronto in 2013. The initial church in an area is often named after Saint Mark in recognition of his role as the founder of Christianity. However, diaspora allows for creativity in naming a church; Bishop Seraphion in southern California, for example, opted for female saints and saints whose names are not commonly used in Egypt.
The itinerary of the Holy Family refers to the route and stopping points of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph during their flight from Bethlehem into Egypt to escape the persecution of King Herod. Marked by 20 stations starting in the north in the Delta and ending in the south in Asyut, the itinerary forms a sacred geography for Coptic Christians. Some sites are mentioned in historical sources dating to the second century and medieval times; others have been added in the modern era. The Convent of Saint Mercurius, for example, was added after Saint Mary appeared to Mother Irini and revealed that the family had stayed in the convent’s garden. The journey is interpreted as the fulfillment of several biblical prophecies, and some of its famous sites—such as the Convent of Saint Dimyana in the Delta, the tree of the Virgin in Matariya (Cairo), and the Muharraq Monastery in Asyut—are considered to have sacred and miraculous potential.
What is Sacred
For Coptics, the Eucharist is most sacred. The ceremony can only be celebrated in a state of purity after one has fasted and confessed sins, and it starts with the raising of the incense prayers. The bread, called qurban, is prepared by deacons. It must be leavened, unsalted, and made of wheat flour. It is stamped with 12 small crosses that together form the shape of a larger cross. The priest chooses the most perfect loaf for communion and pierces it with five holes that symbolize the wounds of Christ: the three nails, the thorns, and the spear. Furthermore, relics and icons of the saints are considered to be sacred. Locally there are hundreds of places dedicated to martyrs, saints, and the Holy Family. Copts carry objects connected to these places or people, such as holy oil, pictures, and crosses, as sources of baraka (blessing).
Holidays and Festivals
In imitation of the law of Moses (as given in the Bible, Leviticus chapter 23) that prescribes seven major feasts as a living part of common worship, the Coptic Church celebrates seven major feasts: the Annunciation, considered the fulfillment of the Old Testament promise of the coming of the messiah (April 7); Christmas (January 7); Epiphany, or the Baptism of Christ, celebrating the Liturgy of Blessing the Water, in which water is sprinkled over the believers in commemoration of their baptism (January 19); Palm Sunday, the Sunday preceding Easter, which starts with joyful hymns and ends with a funeral blessing for those who might pass away during Holy Week, when there will be no funeral prayers; Easter; the Ascension, celebrated on the 40th day after Easter; and Pentecost, when in remembrance of the unity of all beings, special prayers are said for the sick, those traveling, and those who passed away.
In addition, seven minor feasts celebrate events in the life of Jesus: his circumcision (January 14); his entrance into the Temple (February 15); the flight to Egypt (June 1); the first miracle at Cana (January 12); his transfiguration (August 19); Maundy Thursday (the day before Good Friday), commemorating the establishment of the Eucharist; and Thomas’s Sunday, the Sunday that follows Easter, when Copts remember all who believe without seeing. Furthermore there are five feasts of the Virgin Mary and Nayrouz (September II), Coptic New Year.
The deaths of Coptic saints are commemorated by moulids. These festivals consist of church-related activities and entertainment, and in past periods of sectarian peace they were sometimes attended by Muslims as well. Moulids also provide opportunities to make pilgrimages to shrines of saints and martyrs.
Mode of Dress
Copts typically wear Western-style clothing. In villages Coptic women wear veils similar to those of Muslim females. Monks and nuns wear a skullcap called a qalansuwa that is divided into two halves, with crosses embroidered on each half. The split symbolizes the struggle Saint Anthony experienced in the desert with the devil, who tore his cap in two. Following the Old Testament practice of devoting special apparel to sacred service before being used for the first time, all the white vestments worn during the liturgy are consecrated. In daily life, monks, nuns, priests, and bishops wear black garments. In imitation of Christ, monks and priests never shave their beards.
Dietary Practices
Copts abstain from consuming all animal products (including meat, eggs, milk, and butter) for a total of more than 200 days per year: every Wednesday and Friday, 55 days during Lent, 43 days during Advent, and several other feasts. Even the aged, children, and pregnant women must take part in the fasts. A complete fast of a minimum of nine hours is required before officiating at or partaking in the Eucharist. Fasting is considered to be both a physical and spiritual exercise, and it includes sexual abstinence.
Rituals
Daily Coptic prayer rituals are directed toward preparation for the Eucharist. Following the book of the hours (a Christian devotional book), the day starts at sunset, in keeping with the time of Christ’s death. Throughout the day Copts pray seven times, commemorating Christ’s suffering.
Based on the Old Testament practice of burning “sweet incense every morning” (Exodus 30:7), incense is used throughout the celebration of the Eucharist and during other divine offices to symbolize the prayers of the faithful rising up to Heaven. The lighting of candles is part of the ceremony, representing the light of the heavenly order.
Marriage ceremonies are ruled by Coptic canon law and include prayers and readings that lead to the al-iklil (the crowning ceremony), wherein the couple is crowned with two diadems (ornamental headbands) that symbolize the high spiritual status of marriage. Marriage ceremonies cannot be performed during Lent or at other times of fasting.
Funeral liturgies vary according to the deceased’s status (clergy or lay), age, and gender. Burial occurs within 24 hours of death. Copts believe that the soul lingers for three days, and thus they perform a ritual for the spirit on the third day. On the 40th day after death, a church ceremony takes place in front of a portrait of the deceased.
Rites of Passage
The most important rites of passage initiate children into the community and church. The primary rite of passage is when a baby is baptized and confirmed. Having received the sacraments of baptism, confirmation, and Communion, a boy becomes a full member of the church on his 40th day of life and a girl on her 80th. The new mother, who is considered unclean by the church after she gives birth, undergoes a cleansing ritual. A cleansing rite is also performed on adults seeking to join the Coptic Orthodox Church.
Copts living in Egypt also perform rites of passage based on folk beliefs. For example, one week after birth, a cluster of celebrations is held called subu’ (seventh-day feast), which is observed by Muslims and Christians alike for good luck and protection. The child is given a name, and the child’s status changes from a newborn to a family member. For Copts, these ceremonies often include the salawat al-tisht (washbasin prayers), at which time a priest gives the child his or her first bath while chanting prayers and verses from the Bible. Circumcision for boys and for many girls is performed sometime during early childhood.
Membership
Copts are forbidden by Islamic law to proselytize. Church growth within Egypt is purely demographic; elsewhere, new members are added through intermarriage and missionary activities.
Religious Tolerance
In principle the Egyptian constitution allows Copts full and equal rights as citizens, but in practice Islamic law imposes many restrictions upon Coptic activities. For example, public processions, the ringing of church bells, and other public demonstrations are not allowed. To build a new church or repair an existing one, Copts must obtain special government permits, which can take more than 15 years to be granted. In addition, churches cannot be established in proximity to a mosque.
Copts suffer numerous forms of hidden discrimination when seeking employment or scholarships. Since the time of Sadat, especially since he proclaimed Sharia to be the main source of law in Egypt, there has been ongoing violence against the Copts. After the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood came to power in 2011, the situation became more precarious. President Mohamed Morsi, the Muslim Brotherhood candidate elected in 2012, issued an Islamist-inspired draft constitution. The constitution reiterated an equal citizenship status for the Copts, but in its stricter application of Sharia law, which fundamentally privileges Muslims above non-Muslims, it allowed for many potential forms of discrimination against them. Morsi was forced out of office by a military coup in July 2013. Islamists, perceiving Copts as having supported the coup, sought retribution through numerous attacks on Christian churches.
If applied fully in Egypt, Sharia would place Copts in the status of dhimmi. Meaning “protected” in Arabic, dhimmi refers to any non-Muslim living in an Islamic state whose legal status is recognized but is subordinate to that of Muslims. As an official legal category, dhimmi contradicts existing international laws and treaties. However, in reality, especially in the eyes of Islamists, Copts are already relegated to a marginalized status.
Social Justice
Christian churches throughout Egypt have been active in creating social services aimed at empowering the poor, women, and other disadvantaged groups. This work started during the 1960s with a focus on village ministry and was taken up by bishops such as Samuel, Bishop of Public, Ecumenical, and Social Affairs, and Athanasius of Beni Suef (1923-2000). Joining forces with the Coptic Evangelical Organization for Social Services and with Catholic Caritas Egypt, they focused on education, development, and health. Since the plight of women and children was central, Bishop Athanasius founded the Daughters of St. Mary in 1965, an order of deaconesses that runs clinics, kindergartens, schools, homes for the elderly, and special programs for the mentally or physically disabled. These services have also strengthened forms of ecumenical and interreligious cooperation since the goal is to serve the underprivileged regardless of their religious backgrounds.
The Coptic Church also has designed vocational training and special Bible studies for the poorest of the poor. It has worked on interfaith and peacemaking activities through youth workshops and integrated schools for Muslim and Coptic children. The aim of these programs is to give Copts full participation and acceptance in Egyptian society. In addition, Coptic leaders have been active in protesting the practice of female circumcision. Female circumcision, also known as female genital mutilation (FGM), is considered by the World Health Organization (WHO) and others to be a human rights violation. Providing no health benefits, the procedure can result in shock; severe, sometimes recurring pain; significant risk of infection; sepsis; tetanus; infertility; later childbirth complications; or even death.
Social Life
The sacrament of marriage sanctifies a physical and spiritual union that cannot be broken. The family unit is the core of the Coptic faith. It is considered indivisible and functions like a small church that experiences the work of God and holds specific spiritual responsibilities. The family transmits the extensive Coptic tradition and teaches children the faith.
Controversial Issues
One of the most controversial issues concerns divorce and remarriage, which are regulated by the canon law. The Coptic Church only grants a divorce in cases of adultery or if one of the spouses converts to another religion. In order to escape these strict rules, Copts have converted to Islam and obtained a divorce through the Islamic state court. This issue resulted in a second controversy: according to Islamic law, converted Copts who wish to return to the Coptic Church commit the grave trespass of apostasy (renunciation of a religion).
Traditionally, women are considered to be the caregivers who raise the future generation. The Coptic Church still follows some Old Testament laws that deem a woman impure during menstruation and after childbirth. These rules, in combination with specific interpretations of the New Testament, bar women from holding official, ordained offices in the church hierarchy. Women can be Sunday school teachers, pastoral workers, deaconesses, and nuns.
As more Copts move to the West, the position of women has become an issue of debate. Although liturgically they cannot participate in official church services, their presence in other areas of church life can no longer go unnoticed, as they are in charge of numerous activities, such as choirs and social services, and often earn a large part of the family income. In several places, women initiated regular Coptic church services and were instrumental in raising the money to buy a church building and fund a permanent priest.
Cultural Impact
Christianized themes on shrouds and textiles of antiquity represent the beginnings of Coptic art. The most important early Coptic monuments are monasteries and the religious artifacts preserved within them, such as those in the Wadi Natroun Oasis and in the Monastery of Saint Anthony. In the 18th century a fertile period of icon painting began, and in the 1970s well-known Egyptian artist Isaac Fanous (1919-2007) established a school for neo-Coptic iconography. With ongoing archeological discoveries of Coptic art and artifacts, centers for Coptic studies have been opened, such as the St. Shenouda Center for Coptic Studies in Los Angeles and the Canadian Society for Coptic Studies. In 2000 the Egyptian government declared Coptic monasteries and churches to be part of the national heritage. Furthermore, Copts have long contributed to Egyptian society as writers, scholars, and journalists. Copts have developed a vibrant media industry of movies and television programming that is mostly aimed at Coptic audiences. In Egypt, in 2005, the church launched its first television channel, Aghaphy TV. Two years later Tharwat Bassily (1940- ), a businessman and Coptic Church official, founded Coptic TV (CTV), and the Coptic Diocese of Los Angeles started Logos TV. All broadcast in Arabic as well as in other languages via satellite to Coptic Christians in Egypt and abroad.